Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®

SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka
Accredited by NBA, NAAC- “A” Grade
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 , Email: info@[Link], URL:[Link]

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Module -2

Introducing Classes
 The class is at the core of Java.
 It is the logical construct upon which the entire Java language is built because it
defines the shape and nature of an object.
 The class forms the basis for object-oriented programming in Java. Any concept you
wish to implement in a Java program must be encapsulated within a class. 

Class Fundamentals
 The classes created exist simply to encapsulate the main( ) method, which has been
used to demonstrate the basics of the Java syntax.
 A class is that it defines a new data type. Once defined, this new type can be used to
create objects of that type.
 Thus, a class is a template for an object, and an object is an instance of a class.

The General Form of a Class

 A class is declared by use of the class keyword.
 The classes that have been used up to this point are actually very limited examples of
its complete form.
 Classes can (and usually do) get much more complex.

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT 1

A simplified general form of a class definition is shown here:
class classname {
type instance-
variable1; type
instance-variable2;
// ...
type instance-variableN;

type methodname1(parameter-list) {
// body of method
}
type methodname2(parameter-list) {
// body of method
}
// ...
type methodnameN(parameter-list) {
// body of method
}
}

 The data, or variables, defined within a class are called instance variables.
 The code is contained within methods.
 Collectively, the methods and variables defined within a class are called
members of the class.
 The general rule, it is the methods that determine how a class’ data can be used.
 Variables defined within a class are called instance variables because each
instance of the class (that is, each object of the class) contains its own copy of
these variables.
 The general form of a class does not specify a main( ) method.
 Java classes do not need to have a main( ) method.
 You only specify one if that class is the starting point for your program.

A Simple Class
Here is a class called Box that defines three instance variables: width, height, and depth.
Currently, Box does not contain any methods.
class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;
}

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT 2

A class defines a new type of data. In this case, the new data type is called Box. You will use this name to
declare objects of type Box.

It is important to remember that a class declaration only creates a template; it does not create an actual
object. Thus, the preceding code does not cause any objects of type Box to come into existence.

To actually create a Box object, you will use a statement like the following:
Box mybox = new Box(); // create a Box object called mybox

After this statement executes, mybox will refer to an instance of Box. Thus, it will have “physical” reality
Each time you create an instance of a class, you are creating an object that contains its own copy of each
instance variable defined by the class. Thus, every Box object will contain its own copies of the instance
variables width, height, and depth.
To access these variables, you will use the dot (.) operator.
The dot operator links the name of the object with the name of an instance variable.
For example, to assign the width variable of mybox the value 100, you would use the following statement:

[Link] = 100;

In general, we use the dot operator to access both the instance variables and the methods within an object.

Here is a complete program that uses the Box class:

/* A program that uses the Box class.

Call this file [Link]

*/
class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;
}

// This class declares an object of type Box.

class BoxDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Box mybox = new Box();
double vol;

// assign values to mybox's instance variables

[Link] = 10;
[Link] = 20;
[Link] = 15;

// compute volume of box

vol = [Link] * [Link] * [Link];

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT 3

 [Link]("Volume is " + vol);
}
}

You should call the file that contains this program [Link], because the main( ) method is in the class
called BoxDemo, not the class called Box. When you compile this program, you will find that two .class files
have been created, one for Box and one for BoxDemo. The Java compiler automatically puts each class into its
own .class file. It is not necessary for both the Box and the BoxDemo class to actually be in the same source file.
You could put each class in its own file, called [Link] and [Link], respectively.

output:

Volume is 3000.0

Each object has its own copies of the instance variables. If you have two Box objects, each has its own copy
of depth, width, and height. It is important to understand that changes to the instance variables of one
object have no effect on the instance variables of another. For example, the following program declares two
Box objects:

// This program declares two Box objects.

class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;
}

class BoxDemo2 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Box mybox1 = new Box();
Box mybox2 = new Box();
double vol;

// assign values to mybox1's instance variables

[Link] = 10;
[Link] = 20;
[Link] = 15;

/* assign different values to mybox2's

instance variables */
[Link] = 3;
[Link] = 6;
[Link] = 9;

// compute volume of first box

vol = [Link] * [Link] * [Link];
[Link]("Volume is " + vol);

// compute volume of second box

vol = [Link] * [Link] * [Link];

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT 3

 [Link]("Volume is " + vol);
}
}

The output produced by this program is shown here:

Volume is 3000.0
Volume is 162.0

mybox1’s data is completely separate from the data contained in mybox2.

Declaring Object:

 When you create a class, we are creating a new data type. Obtaining objects of a class is a two-step
process. First, you must declare a variable of the class type. This variable does not define an object.
 Instead, it is simply a variable that can refer to an object.
 Second, you must acquire an actual, physical copy of the object and assign it to that variable. You can
do this using the new operator.
 The new operator dynamically allocates (that is, allocates at run time) memory for an object and
returns a reference to it. This reference is, essentially, the address in memory of the object
allocated by new.
 This reference is then stored in the variable. Thus, in Java, all class objects must be dynamically
allocated
Declare an object of type Box:
Box mybox = new Box();

This statement combines the two steps just described.

Box mybox; // declare reference to object mybox =
new Box(); // allocate a Box object

The first line declares mybox as a reference to an object of type Box. At this point, mybox does not yet refer to an
actual object. The next line allocates an object and assigns a reference to it to mybox. After the second line
executes, you can use mybox as if it were a Box object. But in reality, mybox simply holds, in essence, the memory
address of the actual Box object.

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT 3

A Closer Look at new
The new operator dynamically allocates memory for an object. In the context of an assignment, it has this
general form:
class-var = new classname ( );
 Here, class-var is a variable of the class type being created.
 The classname is the name of the class that is being instantiated.
 The class name followed by parentheses specifies the constructor for the class.
 A constructor defines what occurs when an object of a class is created.
 Constructors are an important part of all classes and have many significant attributes.
 Most real-world classes explicitly define their own constructors within their class definition.
 However, if no explicit constructor is specified, then Java will automatically supply a default
constructor.

Figure: Declaring an object of type Box

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

Assigning Object Reference Variables

Object reference variables act differently than you might expect when an assignment
takes place. For example, what do you think the following fragment does?

Box b1 = new Box();

Box b2 = b1;

b1 and b2 will both refer to the same object. The assignment of b1 to b2 did not allocate
any memory or copy any part of the original object. It simply makes b2 refer to the same
object as does b1. Thus, any changes made to the object through b2 will affect the object to
which b1 is referring, since they are the same object.
This situation is depicted here:

Although b1 and b2 both refer to the same object, they are not linked in any other way.
For example, a subsequent assignment to b1 will simply unhook b1 from the original
object without affecting the object or affecting b2.
For example:

Box b1 = new Box();

Box b2 = b1;
// ...
b1 = null;
Here, b1 has been set to null, but b2 still points to the original object.

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

Introducing Methods
Classes usually consist of two things: instance variables and methods, to add methods to your classes.
This is the general form of a method:

type name(parameter-list) {
// body of method
}

 Here, type specifies the type of data returned by the method. This can be any valid type, including
class types that you create. If the method does not return a value, its return type must be void.

 The name of the method is specified by name. This can be any legal identifier other than those already
used by other items within the current scope.

 The parameter-list is a sequence of type and identifier pairs separated by commas. Parameters are
essentially variables that receive the value of the arguments passed to the method when it is called.
 If the method has no parameters, then the parameter list will be empty.
 Methods that have a return type other than void return a value to the calling routine using
the following form of the return statement:

return value;

Here, value is the value returned.

Adding a Method to the Box Class

Adding a method to the Box class. It may have occurred to you while looking at the preceding programs that
the computation of a box’s volume was something that was best handled by the Box class rather than the
BoxDemo class. After all, since the volume of a box is dependent upon the size of the box, it makes sense to
have the Box class compute it. To do this, you must add a method to Box, as shown here:

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

 // This program includes a method inside the box class.

class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// display volume of a box

void volume() {
[Link]("Volume is ");
[Link](width * height * depth);
}
}

class BoxDemo3 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Box mybox1 = new Box();
Box mybox2 = new Box();

// assign values to mybox1's instance variables

[Link] = 10;
[Link] = 20;
[Link] = 15;

/* assign different values to mybox2's

instance variables */
[Link] = 3;
[Link] = 6;
[Link] = 9;

// display volume of first box

[Link]();

// display volume of second box

[Link]();
}
}

This program generates the following output, which is the same as the previous version.
Volume is 3000.0
Volume is 162.0

Here, [Link]();

[Link]();

The first line here invokes the volume( ) method on mybox1. That is, it calls volume( ) relative to the
mybox1 object, using the object’s name followed by the dot operator.

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

Thus, the call to [Link]( ) displays the volume of the box defined by mybox1, and the call to
[Link]( ) displays the volume of the box defined by mybox2. Each time volume( ) is invoked, it
displays the volume for the specified box.

Returning a Value
A better way to implement volume( ) is to have it compute the volume of the box and return the result to
the caller. The following example, an improved version of the preceding program, does just that:

// Now, volume() returns the volume of a box.

class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// compute and return volume

double volume() {
return width * height * depth;
}
}

class BoxDemo4 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Box mybox1 = new Box();
Box mybox2 = new Box();
double vol;

// assign values to mybox1's instance variables

[Link] = 10;
[Link] = 20;
[Link] = 15;

/* assign different values to mybox2's

instance variables */
[Link] = 3;
[Link] = 6;
[Link] = 9;

// get volume of first box

vol = [Link]();
[Link]("Volume is " + vol);

// get volume of second box

vol = [Link]();
[Link]("Volume is " + vol);
}
}

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

There are two important things to understand about returning values:

The type of data returned by a method must be compatible with the return type specified by the method.
For example, if the return type of some method is boolean, you could not return an integer.
The variable receiving the value returned by a method (such as vol, in this case) must also be compatible
with the return type specified for the method.

The call to volume( ) could have been used in the println( ) statement directly, as shown here:
[Link]("Volume is" + [Link]());

In this case, when println( ) is executed, [Link]( ) will be called automatically and its value will be
passed to println( ).

Adding a Method That Takes Parameters

While some methods don’t need parameters, most do. Parameters allow a method to be generalized. That is, a
parameterized method can operate on a variety of data and/or be used in a number of slightly different
situations. To illustrate this point, let’s use a very simple example. Here is a method that returns the square of
the number 10:

int square()
{
return 10 * 10;
}

While this method does, indeed, return the value of 10 squared, its use is very limited. However, if you modify
the method so that it takes a parameter, as shown next, then you can make square( ) much more useful.

int square(int i)
{
return i * i;
}

Now, square( ) will return the square of whatever value it is called with. That is, square( ) is now a general-
purpose method that can compute the square of any integer value, rather than just 10.

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

 Here is an example:
int x, y;
x = square(5); // x equals 25
x = square(9); // x equals 81
y = 2;
x = square(y); // x equals 4

// This program uses a parameterized method.

class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// compute and return volume

double volume() {
return width * height * depth;
}

// sets dimensions of box

void setDim(double w, double h, double d) {
width = w;
height = h;
depth = d;
}
}

class BoxDemo5 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Box mybox1 = new Box();
Box mybox2 = new Box();
double vol;

// initialize each box

[Link](10, 20, 15);
[Link](3, 6, 9);

// get volume of first box

vol = [Link]();
[Link]("Volume is " + vol);

// get volume of second box

vol = [Link]();
[Link]("Volume is " + vol);
}
}

As you can see, the setDim( ) method is used to set the dimensions of each box.

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

Constructors
 Java allows objects to initialize themselves when they are created. This automatic
initialization is performed through the use of a constructor.
 A constructor initializes an object immediately upon creation. It has the same name as
the class in which it resides and is syntactically similar to a method.
 Once defined, the constructor is automatically called when the object is created, before
the new operator completes.
 Constructors have no return type, not even void. This is because the implicit return
type of a class’ constructor is the class type itself.
Types of Constructors in Java
 Default Constructor
 Parameterized Constructor

1. Default Constructor in Java

A constructor that has no parameters is known as default the constructor. A default constructor is
invisible.
2. Parameterized Constructor in Java
A constructor that has parameters is known as parameterized constructor. If we want to initialize
fields of the class with our own values, then we use a parameterized constructor.

You can rework the Box example so that the dimensions of a box are automatically initialized
when an object is constructed. To do so, replace setDim( ) with a constructor.

This version is shown here:

/* Here, Box uses a constructor to initialize the

dimensions of a box.
*/
class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// This is the constructor for Box.

Box() {
[Link]("Constructing Box");
width = 10;
height = 10;
depth = 10;
}
Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT
 // compute and return volume
double volume() {
return width * height * depth;
}
}

class BoxDemo6 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// declare, allocate, and initialize Box objects
Box mybox1 = new Box();
Box mybox2 = new Box();

double vol;

// get volume of first box

vol = [Link]();
[Link]("Volume is " + vol);

// get volume of second box

vol = [Link]();
[Link]("Volume is " + vol);
}
}

When this program is run, it generates the following results:

Constructing Box
Constructing Box
Volume is 1000.0
Volume is 1000.0

Parameterized Constructors
A constructor that has parameters is known as parameterized constructor. If we want to initialize
fields of the class with our own values, then we use a parameterized constructor.

For example, the following version of Box defines a parameterized constructor that sets the dimensions of a box as
specified by those parameters. Pay special attention to how Box objects are created.

/* Here, Box uses a parameterized constructor to initialize the dimensions of a box.*/

class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// This is the constructor for Box.

Box(double w, double h, double d) {
width = w;
height = h;
depth = d;

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

 // This is the constructor for Box.
Box(double w, double h, double d) {
width = w;
height = h;
depth = d;
}

// compute and return volume

double volume() {

return width * height * depth;

}
}

class BoxDemo7 {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// declare, allocate, and initialize Box objects
Box mybox1 = new Box(10, 20, 15);
Box mybox2 = new Box(3, 6, 9);

double vol;

// get volume of first box

vol = [Link]();
[Link]("Volume is " + vol);

// get volume of second box

vol = [Link]();
[Link]("Volume is " + vol);
}
}

The output from this program is shown here:

Volume is 3000.0
Volume is 162.0

The this Keyword

Sometimes a method will need to refer to the object that invoked it. To allow this, Java defines the
this keyword. this can be used inside any method to refer to the current object. That is, this is always
a reference to the object on which the method was invoked. You can use this anywhere a reference to
an object of the current class’ type is permitted.
To better understand what this refers to, consider the following version of Box( ):

// A redundant use of this.

Box(double w, double h, double d) {
[Link] = w;
[Link] = h;
[Link] = d;
}

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

The this Keyword
Here is given the 6 usage of java this keyword.

1. this can be used to refer current class instance variable.

2. this can be used to invoke current class method (implicitly)
3. this() can be used to invoke current class constructor.
4. this can be passed as an argument in the method call.
5. this can be passed as argument in the constructor call.
6. this can be used to return the current class instance from the method.

To better understand what this refers to, consider the following version of Box( ):

// A redundant use of this.

Box(double w, double h, double d) {
[Link] = w;
[Link] = h;
[Link] = d;
}

Instance Variable Hiding

 Instance variable hiding refers to a state when instance variables of the same name are
present in superclass and subclass.
 When a local variable has the same name as an instance variable, the local variable hides the instance
variable. This is why width, height, and depth were not used as the names of the parameters to the
Box( ) constructor inside the Box class.
 Because this lets you refer directly to the object, you can use it to resolve any namespace collisions
that might occur between instance variables and local variables.
 For example, here is another version of Box( ), which uses width, height, and depth for parameter
names and then uses this to access the instance variables by the same name:

// Use this to resolve name-space collisions.

Box(double width, double height, double depth) {
[Link] = width;
[Link] = height;
[Link] = depth;
}

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

Garbage Collection
 Java takes an approach for deallocation of memory automatically. The technique that accomplishes this is
called garbage collection. It works like this: when no references to an object exist, that object is assumed
to be no longer needed, and the memory occupied by the object can be reclaimed.

 There is no need to explicitly destroy objects.

 Garbage collection only occurs sporadically (if at all) during the execution of your program.

 It will not occur simply because one or more objects exist that are no longer used.

A Stack Class
 A stack stores data using first-in, last-out ordering. That is, a stack is like a stack of plates on a table—the
first plate put down on the table is the last plate to be used.
 Stacks are controlled through two operations traditionally called push and pop.
 To put an item on top of the stack, you will use push.
 To take an item off the stack, you will use pop. As you will see, it is easy to encapsulate the entire stack
mechanism.
 Here is a class called Stack that implements a stack for up to ten integers:

// This class defines an integer stack that can hold 10 values

class Stack {
int[] stck = new int[10];
int tos;

// Initialize top-of-stack
Stack() {
tos = -1;
}
// Push an item onto the stack
void push(int item) {
if(tos==9)
[Link]("Stack is full.");
else
stck[++tos] = item;
}

// Pop an item from the stack

int pop() {
if(tos < 0) {
[Link]("Stack underflow.");

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

 return 0;
}
else
return stck[tos--];
}
}
public static void main(String[] args)
{ Stack mystack1 = new Stack();
Stack mystack2 = new Stack();

// push some numbers onto the stack

for(int i=0; i<10; i++)
[Link](i); for(int i=10; i<20;
i++) [Link](i);

// pop those numbers off the stack

[Link]("Stack in
mystack1:"); for(int i=0; i<10; i++)
[Link]([Link]());

[Link]("Stack in
mystack2:"); for(int i=0; i<10; i++)
[Link]([Link]());
}
}

This program generates the following output:

Stack in
mystac
k1: 9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Stack in
mystack2: 19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT

Prof. Radha R, Dept. of ISE, SVIT