JavaScript

JavaScript (JS)[a] is a programming language and core technology of the web platform, alongside
HTML and CSS. Ninety-nine percent of websites on the World Wide Web use JavaScript on the client
side for webpage behavior.[10]

Web browsers have a dedicated JavaScript engine that executes the client code. These engines are
also utilized in some servers and a variety of apps. The most popular runtime system for non-
browser usage is [Link].

JavaScript is a high-level, often just-in-time–compiled language that conforms to the ECMAScript

standard.[11] It has dynamic typing, prototype-based object-orientation, and first-class functions. It is
multi-paradigm, supporting event-driven, functional, and imperative programming styles. It has
application programming interfaces (APIs) for working with text, dates, regular expressions,
standard data structures, and the Document Object Model (DOM).

The ECMAScript standard does not include any input/output (I/O), such as networking, storage, or
graphics facilities. In practice, the web browser or other runtime system provides JavaScript APIs
for I/O.

Although Java and JavaScript are similar in name and syntax, the two languages are distinct and
differ greatly in design.

History

Creation at Netscape

The first popular web browser with a graphical user interface, Mosaic, was released in 1993. The
lead developers of Mosaic then founded the Netscape corporation, which released a more polished
browser, Netscape Navigator, in 1994. This quickly became the most-used.[12]

During these formative years of the Web, web pages could only be static, lacking the capability for
dynamic behavior after the page was loaded in the browser. There was a desire in the flourishing
web development scene to remove this limitation, so in 1995, Netscape decided to add a
programming language to Navigator. They pursued two routes to achieve this: collaborating with
Sun Microsystems to embed the Java language, while also hiring Brendan Eich to embed the
Scheme language.[6]
The goal was a "language for the masses",[13] "to
JavaScript
help nonprogrammers create dynamic, interactive
Web sites".[14] Netscape management soon
decided that the best option was for Eich to
devise a new language, with syntax similar to
Java and less like Scheme or other extant
scripting languages.[5][6] Although the new
language and its interpreter implementation were
called LiveScript when first shipped as part of a
Navigator beta in September 1995, the name was
Screenshot of JavaScript source code
changed to JavaScript for the official release in
December.[6][1][15][16] Paradigms Multi-paradigm:
event-driven,
The choice of the JavaScript name has caused functional,
confusion, implying that it is directly related to imperative,
Java. At the time, the dot-com boom had begun procedural, object-
and Java was a popular new language, so Eich oriented

considered the JavaScript name a marketing ploy Family ECMAScript

by Netscape.[13]
Designed by Brendan Eich of
Netscape first; then

Adoption by Microsoft others contributed to

ECMAScript standard
Microsoft debuted Internet Explorer in 1995,
First appeared 4 December 1995[1]
leading to a browser war with Netscape. On the
JavaScript front, Microsoft created its own
Stable release ECMAScript 2024[2]
interpreter called JScript.[17]
/ June 2024

Microsoft first released JScript in 1996, alongside

Preview release ECMAScript 2025[3]
initial support for CSS and extensions to HTML. / 27 March 2024
Each of these implementations was noticeably
Typing discipline Dynamic, weak, duck
different from their counterparts in Netscape
Navigator.[18][19] These differences made it Memory Garbage collected
difficult for developers to make their websites management
work well in both browsers, leading to widespread
Scope lexical
use of "best viewed in Netscape" and "best
viewed in Internet Explorer" logos for several Filename extensions .js • .mjs •
years.[18][20] .cjs [4]
The rise of JScript Website ecma-international
.org/publications-
In November 1996, Netscape submitted and-standards
JavaScript to Ecma International, as the starting /standards/ecma-

point for a standard specification that all browser 262/ ([Link]

[Link]/public
vendors could conform to. This led to the official
ations-and-standard
release of the first ECMAScript language
s/standards/ecma-2
specification in June 1997.
62/)

The standards process continued for a few years, Major implementations

with the release of ECMAScript 2 in June 1998
V8, JavaScriptCore, SpiderMonkey;
and ECMAScript 3 in December 1999. Work on
Chakra (deprecated)
ECMAScript 4 began in 2000.[17]
Influenced by
However, the effort to fully standardize the
language was undermined by Microsoft gaining Java,[5][6] Scheme,[6] Self,[7] AWK,[8]
an increasingly dominant position in the browser HyperTalk[9]

market. By the early 2000s, Internet Explorer's Influenced

market share reached 95%.[21] This meant that
JScript became the de facto standard for client- ActionScript, ArkTS, AssemblyScript,
CoffeeScript, Dart, Haxe, JS++, Opa,
side scripting on the Web.
TypeScript
Microsoft initially participated in the standards
JavaScript at Wikibooks
process and implemented some proposals in its
JScript language, but eventually it stopped
collaborating on ECMA work. Thus ECMAScript 4 was mothballed. Brendan Eich later said of
this period: "It's still kind of
a sidekick language. It's
Growth and standardization considered slow or
annoying. People do pop-
ups or those scrolling
messages in the old
status bar at the bottom of
your old browser."[13]

Logo of Ecma
International Technical
Committee 39 who is
 responsible for
maintaining the standard

During the period of Internet Explorer dominance in the early 2000s, client-side scripting was
stagnant. This started to change in 2004, when the successor of Netscape, Mozilla, released the
Firefox browser. Firefox was well received by many, taking significant market share from Internet
Explorer.[22]

In 2005, Mozilla joined ECMA International, and work started on the ECMAScript for XML (E4X)
standard. This led to Mozilla working jointly with Macromedia (later acquired by Adobe Systems),
who were implementing E4X in their ActionScript 3 language, which was based on an ECMAScript 4
draft. The goal became standardizing ActionScript 3 as the new ECMAScript 4. To this end, Adobe
Systems released the Tamarin implementation as an open source project. However, Tamarin and
ActionScript 3 were too different from established client-side scripting, and without cooperation
from Microsoft, ECMAScript 4 never reached fruition.

Meanwhile, very important developments were occurring in open-source communities not affiliated
with ECMA work. In 2005, Jesse James Garrett released a white paper in which he coined the term
Ajax and described a set of technologies, of which JavaScript was the backbone, to create web
applications where data can be loaded in the background, avoiding the need for full page reloads.
This sparked a renaissance period of JavaScript, spearheaded by open-source libraries and the
communities that formed around them. Many new libraries were created, including jQuery,
Prototype, Dojo Toolkit, and MooTools.

Google debuted its Chrome browser in 2008, with the V8 JavaScript engine that was faster than its
competition.[23][24] The key innovation was just-in-time compilation (JIT),[25] so other browser
vendors needed to overhaul their engines for JIT.[26]

In July 2008, these disparate parties came together for a conference in Oslo. This led to the
eventual agreement in early 2009 to combine all relevant work and drive the language forward. The
result was the ECMAScript 5 standard, released in December 2009.

Reaching maturity

Ambitious work on the language continued for several years, culminating in an extensive collection
of additions and refinements being formalized with the publication of ECMAScript 6 in 2015.[27]

The creation of [Link] in 2009 by Ryan Dahl sparked a significant increase in the usage of
JavaScript outside of web browsers. Node combines the V8 engine, an event loop, and I/O APIs,
thereby providing a stand-alone JavaScript runtime system.[28][29] As of 2018, Node had been used
by millions of developers,[30] and npm had the most modules of any package manager in the
world.[31]

The ECMAScript draft specification is currently maintained openly on GitHub,[32] and editions are
produced via regular annual snapshots.[32] Potential revisions to the language are vetted through a
comprehensive proposal process.[33][34] Now, instead of edition numbers, developers check the
status of upcoming features individually.[32]

The current JavaScript ecosystem has many libraries and frameworks, established programming
practices, and substantial usage of JavaScript outside of web browsers.[16] Plus, with the rise of
single-page applications and other JavaScript-heavy websites, several transpilers have been created
to aid the development process.[35]

Trademark

"JavaScript" is a trademark of Oracle Corporation in the United States.[36][37] The trademark was
originally issued to Sun Microsystems on 6 May 1997, and was transferred to Oracle when they
acquired Sun in 2009.[38][39]

A letter was circulated in September 2024, spearheaded by Ryan Dahl, calling on Oracle to free the
JavaScript trademark.[40] Brendan Eich, the original creator of JavaScript, was among the over
14,000 signatories who supported the initiative.

Website client-side usage

JavaScript is the dominant client-side scripting language of the Web, with 99% of all websites using
it for this purpose.[10] Scripts are embedded in or included from HTML documents and interact with
the DOM.

All major web browsers have a built-in JavaScript engine that executes the code on the user's
device.

Examples of scripted behavior

Loading new web page content without reloading the page, via Ajax or a WebSocket. For example,
users of social media can send and receive messages without leaving the current page.

Web page animations, such as fading objects in and out, resizing, and moving them.
 Playing browser games.

Controlling the playback of streaming media.

Generating pop-up ads or alert boxes.

Validating input values of a web form before the data is sent to a web server.

Logging data about the user's behavior then sending it to a server. The website owner can use this
data for analytics, ad tracking, and personalization.

Redirecting a user to another page.

Storing and retrieving data on the user's device, via the storage or IndexedDB standards.

Libraries and frameworks

Over 80% of websites use a third-party JavaScript library or web framework as part of their client-
side scripting.[41]

jQuery is by far the most-used.[41] Other notable ones include Angular, Bootstrap, Lodash, Modernizr,
React, Underscore, and Vue.[41] Multiple options can be used in conjunction, such as jQuery and
Bootstrap.[42]

However, the term "Vanilla JS" was coined for websites not using any libraries or frameworks at all,
instead relying entirely on standard JavaScript functionality.[43]

Other usage

The use of JavaScript has expanded beyond its web browser roots. JavaScript engines are now
embedded in a variety of other software systems, both for server-side website deployments and
non-browser applications.

Initial attempts at promoting server-side JavaScript usage were Netscape Enterprise Server and
Microsoft's Internet Information Services,[44][45] but they were small niches.[46] Server-side usage
eventually started to grow in the late 2000s, with the creation of [Link] and other approaches.[46]

Electron, Cordova, React Native, and other application frameworks have been used to create many
applications with behavior implemented in JavaScript. Other non-browser applications include
Adobe Acrobat support for scripting PDF documents[47] and GNOME Shell extensions written in
JavaScript.[48]
Oracle used to provide Nashorn, a JavaScript interpreter, as part of their Java Development Kit (JDK)
API library along with jjs a command line interpreter as of JDK version 8. It was removed in JDK 15.
As a replacement Oracle offered GraalJS which can also be used with the OpenJDK which allows
one to create and reference Java objects in JavaScript code and add runtime scripting in JavaScript
to applications written in Java.[49][50][51][52]

JavaScript has been used in some embedded systems, usually by leveraging [Link].[53][54][55]

Execution

JavaScript engine
The first engines for JavaScript were mere interpreters of the source code, but all relevant modern
engines use just-in-time compilation for improved performance.[56] JavaScript engines are typically
developed by web browser vendors, and every major browser has one. In a browser, the JavaScript
engine runs in concert with the rendering engine via the Document Object Model and Web IDL
bindings.[57] However, the use of JavaScript engines is not limited to browsers; for example, the V8
engine is a core component of the [Link] runtime system.[58] They are also called ECMAScript
engines, after the official name of the specification. With the advent of WebAssembly, some engines
can also execute this code in the same sandbox as regular JavaScript code.[59][58]

Runtime system

A JavaScript engine must be embedded within a runtime system (such as a web browser or a
standalone system) to enable scripts to interact with the broader environment. The runtime system
includes the necessary APIs for input/output operations, such as networking, storage, and graphics,
and provides the ability to import scripts.

JavaScript is a single-threaded language. The runtime processes messages from a queue one at a
time, and it calls a function associated with each new message, creating a call stack frame with the
function's arguments and local variables. The call stack shrinks and grows based on the function's
needs. When the call stack is empty upon function completion, JavaScript proceeds to the next
message in the queue. This is called the event loop, described as "run to completion" because each
message is fully processed before the next message is considered. However, the language's
concurrency model describes the event loop as non-blocking: program I/O is performed using
events and callback functions. This means, for example, that JavaScript can process a mouse click
while waiting for a database query to return information.[60]

The notable standalone runtimes are [Link], Deno, and Bun.

Features

The following features are common to all conforming ECMAScript implementations unless explicitly
specified otherwise. The number of cited reserved words including keywords is 50–60 and varies
depending on the implementation.

Imperative and structured

JavaScript supports much of the structured programming syntax from C (e.g., if statements,
while loops, switch statements, do while loops, etc.). One partial exception is scoping:
originally JavaScript only had function scoping with var ; block scoping was added in ECMAScript
2015 with the keywords let and const . Like C, JavaScript makes a distinction between
expressions and statements. One syntactic difference from C is automatic semicolon insertion,
which allow semicolons (which terminate statements) to be omitted.[61]

Weakly typed

JavaScript is weakly typed, which means certain types are implicitly cast depending on the
operation used.[62]

The binary + operator casts both operands to a string unless both operands are numbers. This is
because the addition operator doubles as a concatenation operator

The binary - operator always casts both operands to a number

Both unary operators ( + , - ) always cast the operand to a number. However, + always casts to
Number (binary64) while - preserves BigInt (integer)[63]

Values are cast to strings like the following:[62]

Strings are left as-is

Numbers are converted to their string representation

Arrays have their elements cast to strings after which they are joined by commas ( , )

Other objects are converted to the string [object Object] where Object is the name of
the constructor of the object
Values are cast to numbers by casting to strings and then casting the strings to numbers. These
processes can be modified by defining toString and valueOf functions on the prototype for
string and number casting respectively.

JavaScript has received criticism for the way it implements these conversions as the complexity of
the rules can be mistaken for inconsistency.[64][62] For example, when adding a number to a string,
the number will be cast to a string before performing concatenation, but when subtracting a number
from a string, the string is cast to a number before performing subtraction.

JavaScript type conversions

left operand operator right operand result

[] (empty array) + [] (empty array) "" (empty string)

[] (empty array) + {} (empty object) "[object Object]" (string)

false (boolean) + [] (empty array) "false" (string)

"123" (string) + 1 (number) "1231" (string)

"123" (string) - 1 (number) 122 (number)

"123" (string) - "abc" (string) NaN (number)

Often also mentioned is {} + [] resulting in 0 (number). This is misleading: the {} is

interpreted as an empty code block instead of an empty object, and the empty array is cast to a
number by the remaining unary + operator. If the expression is wrapped in parentheses - ({} +
[]) – the curly brackets are interpreted as an empty object and the result of the expression is "
[object Object]" as expected.[62]

Dynamic

Typing

JavaScript is dynamically typed like most other scripting languages. A type is associated with a
value rather than an expression. For example, a variable initially bound to a number may be
reassigned to a string.[65] JavaScript supports various ways to test the type of objects, including
duck typing.[66]

Run-time evaluation

JavaScript includes an eval function that can execute statements provided as strings at run-time.
Object-orientation (prototype-based)

Prototypal inheritance in JavaScript is described by Douglas Crockford as:

You make prototype objects, and then ... make new instances. Objects are mutable in
JavaScript, so we can augment the new instances, giving them new fields and
methods. These can then act as prototypes for even newer objects. We don't need
classes to make lots of similar objects... Objects inherit from objects. What could be
more object oriented than that?[67]

In JavaScript, an object is an associative array, augmented with a prototype (see below); each key
provides the name for an object property, and there are two syntactical ways to specify such a
name: dot notation ( obj.x = 10 ) and bracket notation ( obj["x"] = 10 ). A property may be
added, rebound, or deleted at run-time. Most properties of an object (and any property that belongs
to an object's prototype inheritance chain) can be enumerated using a for...in loop.

Prototypes

JavaScript uses prototypes where many other object-oriented languages use classes for
inheritance,[68] but it's still possible to simulate most class-based features with the prototype
system.[69] Additionally, ECMAScript version 6 (released June 2015) introduced the keywords class,
extends and super, which serve as syntactic sugar to abstract the underlying prototypal inheritance
system with a more conventional interface. Constructors are declared by specifying a method
named constructor, and all classes are automatically subclasses of the base class Object, similarly
to Java.

class Person {
constructor(name) {
[Link] = name;
}
}

class Student extends Person {

constructor(name, id) {
super(name);
[Link] = id;
}
}
 const bob = new Student("Robert", 12345);
[Link]([Link]); // Robert

Though the underlying object mechanism is still based on prototypes, the newer syntax is similar to
other object oriented languages. Private variables are declared by prefixing the field name with a
number sign (#), and polymorphism is not directly supported, although it can be emulated by
manually calling different functions depending on the number and type of arguments provided.[70]

Functions as object constructors

Functions double as object constructors, along with their typical role. Prefixing a function call with
new will create an instance of a prototype, inheriting properties and methods from the constructor
(including properties from the Object prototype).[71] ECMAScript 5 offers the [Link]
method, allowing explicit creation of an instance without automatically inheriting from the Object
prototype (older environments can assign the prototype to null ).[72] The constructor's
prototype property determines the object used for the new object's internal prototype. New
methods can be added by modifying the prototype of the function used as a constructor.

// This code is completely equivalent to the previous snippet

function Person(name) {
[Link] = name;
}

function Student(name, id) {

[Link](this, name);
[Link] = id;
}

var bob = new Student("Robert", 12345);

[Link]([Link]); // Robert

JavaScript's built-in classes, such as Array and Object , also have prototypes that can be
modified. However, it's generally considered bad practice to modify built-in objects, because third-
party code may use or inherit methods and properties from these objects, and may not expect the
prototype to be modified.[73]

Functions as methods

Unlike in many object-oriented languages, in JavaScript there is no distinction between a function

definition and a method definition. Rather, the distinction occurs during function calling. When a
function is called as a method of an object, the function's local this keyword is bound to that object
for that invocation.

Functional

JavaScript functions are first-class; a function is considered to be an object.[74] As such, a function

may have properties and methods, such as .call() and .bind() .[75]

Lexical closure

A nested function is a function defined within another function. It is created each time the outer
function is invoked.

In addition, each nested function forms a lexical closure: the lexical scope of the outer function
(including any constant, local variable, or argument value) becomes part of the internal state of
each inner function object, even after execution of the outer function concludes.[76]

Anonymous function

JavaScript also supports anonymous functions.

Delegative

JavaScript supports implicit and explicit delegation.

Functions as roles (Traits and Mixins)

JavaScript natively supports various function-based implementations of Role[77] patterns like

Traits[78][79] and Mixins.[80] Such a function defines additional behavior by at least one method
bound to the this keyword within its function body. A Role then has to be delegated explicitly
via call or apply to objects that need to feature additional behavior that is not shared via the
prototype chain.

Object composition and inheritance

Whereas explicit function-based delegation does cover composition in JavaScript, implicit

delegation already happens every time the prototype chain is walked in order to, e.g., find a method
that might be related to but is not directly owned by an object. Once the method is found it gets
called within this object's context. Thus inheritance in JavaScript is covered by a delegation
automatism that is bound to the prototype property of constructor functions.
Miscellaneous

Zero-based numbering

JavaScript is a zero-index language.

Variadic functions

An indefinite number of parameters can be passed to a function. The function can access them
through formal parameters and also through the local arguments object. Variadic functions can
also be created by using the bind ([Link]
JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Function/bind) method.

Array and object literals

Like in many scripting languages, arrays and objects (associative arrays in other languages) can
each be created with a succinct shortcut syntax. In fact, these literals form the basis of the JSON
data format.

Regular expressions

JavaScript supports regular expressions for text searches and manipulation.[71]: 139

Promises

A built-in Promise object provides functionality for handling promises and associating handlers with
an asynchronous action's eventual result. JavaScript supplies combinator methods, which allow
developers to combine multiple JavaScript promises and do operations based on different
scenarios. The methods introduced are: [Link], [Link], [Link] and
[Link].

Async/await

Async/await allows an asynchronous, non-blocking function to be structured in a way similar to an

ordinary synchronous function. Asynchronous, non-blocking code can be written, with minimal
overhead, structured similarly to traditional synchronous, blocking code.

Vendor-specific extensions

Historically, some JavaScript engines supported these non-standard features:

array comprehensions and generator expressions (like Python)

 concise function expressions ( function(args) expr ; this experimental syntax predated
arrow functions)

ECMAScript for XML (E4X), an extension that adds native XML support to ECMAScript
(unsupported in Firefox since version 21[81])

Syntax

Variables in JavaScript can be defined using either the var ,[82] let [83]
or const [84]
keywords.
Variables defined without keywords will be defined at the global scope.

Arrow functions were first introduced in 6th Edition – ECMAScript 2015. They shorten the syntax for
writing functions in JavaScript. Arrow functions are anonymous, so a variable is needed to refer to
them in order to invoke them after their creation, unless surrounded by parenthesis and executed
immediately.

Here is an example of JavaScript syntax.

// Declares a function-scoped variable named `x`, and implicitly

assigns the
// special value `undefined` to it. Variables without value are
automatically
// set to undefined.
// var is generally considered bad practice and let and const are
usually preferred.
var x;

// Variables can be manually set to `undefined` like so

let x2 = undefined;

// Declares a block-scoped variable named `y`, and implicitly sets it

to
// `undefined`. The `let` keyword was introduced in ECMAScript 2015.
let y;

// Declares a block-scoped, un-reassignable variable named `z`, and

sets it to
// a string literal. The `const` keyword was also introduced in
ECMAScript 2015,
// and must be explicitly assigned to.

// The keyword `const` means constant, hence the variable cannot be

reassigned
// as the value is `constant`.
 const z = "this value cannot be reassigned!";

// Declares a global-scoped variable and assigns 3. This is

generally considered
// bad practice, and will not work if strict mode is on.
t = 3;

// Declares a variable named `myNumber`, and assigns a number literal

(the value
// `2`) to it.
let myNumber = 2;

// Reassigns `myNumber`, setting it to a string literal (the value

`"foo"`).
// JavaScript is a dynamically-typed language, so this is legal.
myNumber = "foo";

Note the comments in the examples above, all of which were preceded with two forward slashes.

More examples can be found at the Wikibooks page on JavaScript syntax examples.

Security

JavaScript and the DOM provide the potential for malicious authors to deliver scripts to run on a
client computer via the Web. Browser authors minimize this risk using two restrictions. First, scripts
run in a sandbox in which they can only perform Web-related actions, not general-purpose
programming tasks like creating files. Second, scripts are constrained by the same-origin policy:
scripts from one website do not have access to information such as usernames, passwords, or
cookies sent to another site. Most JavaScript-related security bugs are breaches of either the same
origin policy or the sandbox.

There are subsets of general JavaScript—ADsafe, Secure ECMAScript (SES)—that provide greater
levels of security, especially on code created by third parties (such as advertisements).[85][86]
Closure Toolkit is another project for safe embedding and isolation of third-party JavaScript and
HTML.[87]

Content Security Policy is the main intended method of ensuring that only trusted code is executed
on a Web page.
Cross-site scripting

A common JavaScript-related security problem is cross-site scripting (XSS), a violation of the same-
origin policy. XSS vulnerabilities occur when an attacker can cause a target Website, such as an
online banking website, to include a malicious script in the webpage presented to a victim. The
script in this example can then access the banking application with the privileges of the victim,
potentially disclosing secret information or transferring money without the victim's authorization.
One important solution to XSS vulnerabilities is HTML sanitization.

Some browsers include partial protection against reflected XSS attacks, in which the attacker
provides a URL including malicious script. However, even users of those browsers are vulnerable to
other XSS attacks, such as those where the malicious code is stored in a database. Only correct
design of Web applications on the server-side can fully prevent XSS.

XSS vulnerabilities can also occur because of implementation mistakes by browser authors.[88]

Cross-site request forgery

Another cross-site vulnerability is cross-site request forgery (CSRF). In CSRF, code on an attacker's
site tricks the victim's browser into taking actions the user did not intend at a target site (like
transferring money at a bank). When target sites rely solely on cookies for request authentication,
requests originating from code on the attacker's site can carry the same valid login credentials of
the initiating user. In general, the solution to CSRF is to require an authentication value in a hidden
form field, and not only in the cookies, to authenticate any request that might have lasting effects.
Checking the HTTP Referrer header can also help.

"JavaScript hijacking" is a type of CSRF attack in which a <script> tag on an attacker's site
exploits a page on the victim's site that returns private information such as JSON or JavaScript.
Possible solutions include:

requiring an authentication token in the POST and GET parameters for any response that returns
private information.

Misplaced trust in the client

Developers of client-server applications must recognize that untrusted clients may be under the
control of attackers. The author of an application should not assume that their JavaScript code will
run as intended (or at all) because any secret embedded in the code could be extracted by a
determined adversary. Some implications are:
 Website authors cannot perfectly conceal how their JavaScript operates because the raw source
code must be sent to the client. The code can be obfuscated, but obfuscation can be reverse-
engineered.

JavaScript form validation only provides convenience for users, not security. If a site verifies that
the user agreed to its terms of service, or filters invalid characters out of fields that should only
contain numbers, it must do so on the server, not only the client.

Scripts can be selectively disabled, so JavaScript cannot be relied on to prevent operations such
as right-clicking on an image to save it.[89]

It is considered very bad practice to embed sensitive information such as passwords in

JavaScript because it can be extracted by an attacker.[90]

Prototype pollution is a runtime vulnerability in which attackers can overwrite arbitrary properties
in an object's prototype.

Misplaced trust in developers

Package management systems such as npm and Bower are popular with JavaScript developers.
Such systems allow a developer to easily manage their program's dependencies upon other
developers' program libraries. Developers trust that the maintainers of the libraries will keep them
secure and up to date, but that is not always the case. A vulnerability has emerged because of this
blind trust. Relied-upon libraries can have new releases that cause bugs or vulnerabilities to appear
in all programs that rely upon the libraries. Inversely, a library can go unpatched with known
vulnerabilities out in the wild. In a study done looking over a sample of 133,000 websites,
researchers found 37% of the websites included a library with at least one known vulnerability.[91]
"The median lag between the oldest library version used on each website and the newest available
version of that library is 1,177 days in ALEXA, and development of some libraries still in active use
ceased years ago."[91] Another possibility is that the maintainer of a library may remove the library
entirely. This occurred in March 2016 when Azer Koçulu removed his repository from npm. This
caused tens of thousands of programs and websites depending upon his libraries to break.[92][93]

Browser and plugin coding errors

JavaScript provides an interface to a wide range of browser capabilities, some of which may have
flaws such as buffer overflows. These flaws can allow attackers to write scripts that would run any
code they wish on the user's system. This code is not by any means limited to another JavaScript
application. For example, a buffer overrun exploit can allow an attacker to gain access to the
operating system's API with superuser privileges.

These flaws have affected major browsers including Firefox,[94] Internet Explorer,[95] and Safari.[96]

Plugins, such as video players, Adobe Flash, and the wide range of ActiveX controls enabled by
default in Microsoft Internet Explorer, may also have flaws exploitable via JavaScript (such flaws
have been exploited in the past).[97][98]

In Windows Vista, Microsoft has attempted to contain the risks of bugs such as buffer overflows by
running the Internet Explorer process with limited privileges.[99] Google Chrome similarly confines its
page renderers to their own "sandbox".

Sandbox implementation errors

Web browsers are capable of running JavaScript outside the sandbox, with the privileges necessary
to, for example, create or delete files. Such privileges are not intended to be granted to code from
the Web.

Incorrectly granting privileges to JavaScript from the Web has played a role in vulnerabilities in both
Internet Explorer[100] and Firefox.[101] In Windows XP Service Pack 2, Microsoft demoted JScript's
privileges in Internet Explorer.[102]

Microsoft Windows allows JavaScript source files on a computer's hard drive to be launched as
general-purpose, non-sandboxed programs (see: Windows Script Host). This makes JavaScript (like
VBScript) a theoretically viable vector for a Trojan horse, although JavaScript Trojan horses are
uncommon in practice.[103]

Hardware vulnerabilities

In 2015, a JavaScript-based proof-of-concept implementation of a rowhammer attack was

described in a paper by security researchers.[104][105][106][107]

In 2017, a JavaScript-based attack via browser was demonstrated that could bypass ASLR. It is
called "ASLR⊕Cache" or AnC.[108][109]

In 2018, the paper that announced the Spectre attacks against Speculative Execution in Intel and
other processors included a JavaScript implementation.[110]
Development tools

Important tools have evolved with the language.

Every major web browser has built-in web development tools, including a JavaScript debugger.

Static program analysis tools, such as ESLint and JSLint, scan JavaScript code for conformance
to a set of standards and guidelines.

Some browsers have built-in profilers. Stand-alone profiling libraries have also been created, such
as [Link] and jsbench.[111][112]

Many text editors have syntax highlighting support for JavaScript code.

Related technologies

Java

A common misconception is that JavaScript is directly related to Java. Both indeed have a C-like
syntax (the C language being their most immediate common ancestor language). They are also
typically sandboxed, and JavaScript was designed with Java's syntax and standard library in mind.
In particular, all Java keywords were reserved in original JavaScript, JavaScript's standard library
follows Java's naming conventions, and JavaScript's Math and Date objects are based on
classes from Java 1.0.[113]

Both languages first appeared in 1995, but Java was developed by James Gosling of Sun
Microsystems and JavaScript by Brendan Eich of Netscape Communications.

The differences between the two languages are more prominent than their similarities. Java has
static typing, while JavaScript's typing is dynamic. Java is loaded from compiled bytecode, while
JavaScript is loaded as human-readable source code. Java's objects are class-based, while
JavaScript's are prototype-based. Finally, Java did not support functional programming until Java 8,
while JavaScript has done so from the beginning, being influenced by Scheme.

JSON

JSON is a data format derived from JavaScript; hence the name JavaScript Object Notation. It is a
widely used format supported by many other programming languages.
Transpilers

Many websites are JavaScript-heavy, so transpilers have been created to convert code written in
other languages, which can aid the development process.[35]

TypeScript and CoffeeScript are two notable languages that transpile to JavaScript.

WebAssembly

WebAssembly is a newer language with a bytecode format designed to complement JavaScript,

especially the performance-critical portions of web page scripts. All of the major JavaScript engines
support WebAssembly,[114] which runs in the same sandbox as regular JavaScript code.

[Link] is a subset of JavaScript that served as the forerunner of WebAssembly.[115]

Notes
ⓘ
a. /ˈdʒɑːvəskrɪpt/

References

1. "Netscape and Sun announce JavaScript, the Open, Cross-platform Object Scripting Language
for Enterprise Networks and the Internet" ([Link]
s://[Link]/newsref/pr/[Link]) (Press release). 4 December 1995.
Archived from the original ([Link] on 16
September 2007.

2. "ECMAScript® 2024 Language Specification" ([Link] .

June 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2024.

3. "ECMAScript® 2025 Language Specification" ([Link] . 27 March 2024.

Retrieved 17 April 2024.

4. "nodejs/node-eps" ([Link] .
GitHub. Archived ([Link]
ode-eps/blob/master/[Link]) from the original on 29 August 2020. Retrieved
5 July 2018.
 5. Seibel, Peter (16 September 2009). Coders at Work: Reflections on the Craft of Programming (htt
ps://[Link]/books?id=nneBa6-mWfgC&q=The+immediate+concern+at+Netscape+
was+it+must+look+like+Java.&pg=PA141) . Apress. ISBN 978-1-4302-1948-4. Archived (http
s://[Link]/web/20201224233514/[Link]
gC&q=The+immediate+concern+at+Netscape+was+it+must+look+like+Java.&pg=PA141)
from the original on 24 December 2020. Retrieved 25 December 2018. "Eich: The immediate
concern at Netscape was it must look like Java."

6. "Chapter 4. How JavaScript Was Created" ([Link] .

[Link]. Archived ([Link]
om/es5/[Link]) from the original on 27 February 2020. Retrieved 21 November 2017.

7. "Popularity – Brendan Eich" ([Link] .

8. "Brendan Eich: An Introduction to JavaScript, JSConf 2010" ([Link]

v=1EyRscXrehw) . YouTube. 20 January 2013. p. 22m. Archived ([Link]
20200829024704/[Link] from the original on 29
August 2020. Retrieved 25 November 2019. "Eich: "function", eight letters, I was influenced by
AWK."

9. Eich, Brendan (1998). "Foreword". In Goodman, Danny (ed.). JavaScript Bible ([Link]
g/details/javascriptbible000good) (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-7645-3188-3.
LCCN 97078208 ([Link] . OCLC 38888873 ([Link]
rg/oclc/38888873) . OL 712205M ([Link] .

10. "Usage Statistics of JavaScript as Client-side Programming Language on Websites" ([Link]

[Link]/technologies/details/cp-javascript) . W3Techs. Retrieved 27 February 2024.

11. "ECMAScript 2020 Language Specification" ([Link] .

Archived ([Link]
iew) from the original on 8 May 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2020.

12. Enzer, Larry (31 August 2018). "The Evolution of the Web Browsers" ([Link]
eb/20180831174847/[Link] .
Monmouth Web Developers. Archived from the original ([Link]
-[Link]) on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.

13. Fin JS (17 June 2016), "Brendan Eich – CEO of Brave" ([Link]
mhtfTrRxc) , YouTube, retrieved 7 February 2018

14. "Netscape Communications Corp.", Browser enhancements. Encyclopædia Britannica 2006

Ultimate Reference Suite DVD
15. "TechVision: Innovators of the Net: Brendan Eich and JavaScript" ([Link]
b/20080208124612/[Link]
ml) . Archived from the original ([Link]
vators_be.html) on 8 February 2008.

16. Han, Sheon (4 March 2024). "JavaScript Runs the World—Maybe Even Literally" ([Link]
[Link]/story/javascript-runs-the-world-maybe-literally/) . Wired. Retrieved 21 August 2024.

17. "Chapter 5. Standardization: ECMAScript" ([Link]

p://[Link]/es5/[Link]) . [Link]. Archived from the original ([Link]
[Link]/es5/[Link]) on 1 November 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2021.

18. Champeon, Steve (6 April 2001). "JavaScript, How Did We Get Here?" ([Link]
web/20160719020828/[Link]
ml) . [Link]. Archived from the original ([Link]
1/04/06/js_history.html) on 19 July 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2016.

19. "Microsoft Internet Explorer 3.0 Beta Now Available" ([Link]

9/microsoft-internet-explorer-3-0-beta-now-available/) . [Link]. Microsoft. 29 May
1996. Archived ([Link]
996/05/29/microsoft-internet-explorer-3-0-beta-now-available/) from the original on 24
November 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2016.

20. McCracken, Harry (16 September 2010). "The Unwelcome Return of "Best Viewed with Internet
Explorer" " ([Link]
with-internet-explorer/) . [Link]. Archived ([Link]
192402/[Link]
h-internet-explorer/) from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2016.

21. Baker, Loren (24 November 2004). "Mozilla Firefox Internet Browser Market Share Gains to
7.4%" ([Link]
ns-to-74/1082/) . Search Engine Journal. Archived ([Link]
3607/[Link]
ns-to-74/1082/) from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.

22. Weber, Tim (9 May 2005). "The assault on software giant Microsoft" ([Link]
eb/20170925233936/[Link] . BBC News.
Archived from the original ([Link] on 25
September 2017.
23. "Big browser comparison test: Internet Explorer vs. Firefox, Opera, Safari and Chrome" (https://
[Link]/aid,687738/Big-browser-comparison-test-Internet-Explorer-vs-Fir
efox-Opera-Safari-and-Chrome-Update-Firefox-35-Final/Practice/) . PC Games Hardware.
Computec Media AG. 3 July 2009. Archived ([Link]
tp://[Link]/aid,687738/Big-browser-comparison-test-Internet-Explorer-v
s-Firefox-Opera-Safari-and-Chrome-Update-Firefox-35-Final/Practice/) from the original on 2
May 2012. Retrieved 28 June 2010.

24. Purdy, Kevin (11 June 2009). "Lifehacker Speed Tests: Safari 4, Chrome 2" ([Link]
m/lifehacker-speed-tests-safari-4-chrome-2-and-more-5286869) . Lifehacker. Archived (http
s://[Link]/web/20210414095403/[Link]
i-4-chrome-2-and-more-5286869) from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.

25. "TraceMonkey: JavaScript Lightspeed, Brendan Eich's Blog" ([Link]

8/tracemonkey-javascript-lightspeed/) . Archived ([Link]
540/[Link] from the original
on 4 December 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2020.

26. "Mozilla asks, 'Are we fast yet?' " ([Link]

t/) . Wired. Archived ([Link]
2010/09/mozilla-asks-are-we-fast-yet/) from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved
18 January 2019.

27. "ECMAScript 6: New Features: Overview and Comparison" ([Link]

318064130/[Link] . [Link]. Archived from the original on 18
March 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2018.

28. Professional [Link]: Building JavaScript Based Scalable Software ([Link]

books?id=ZH6bpbcrlvYC&q=nodejs) Archived ([Link]
0/[Link]
&sa=X#v=onepage&q=nodejs&f=false) 2017-03-24 at the Wayback Machine, John Wiley &
Sons, 01-Oct-2012

29. Sams Teach Yourself [Link] in 24 Hours ([Link]

&dq=nodejs&pg=PT24) Archived ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=KGt-FxUEj48C&pg=PT24&dq=nodejs&hl=en&sa=X#v=onepage&q=no
dejs&f=false) 2017-03-23 at the Wayback Machine, Sams Publishing, 05-Sep-2012
30. Lawton, George (19 July 2018). "The secret history behind the success of npm and Node" (http
s://[Link]/blog/Coffee-Talk-Java-News-Stories-and-Opinions/The-secret-hist
ory-behind-the-success-of-npm-and-Node) . TheServerSide. Archived ([Link]
web/20210802165613/[Link]
nd-Opinions/The-secret-history-behind-the-success-of-npm-and-Node) from the original on 2
August 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2021.

31. Brown, Paul (13 January 2017). "State of the Union: npm" ([Link]
nion-npm/) . [Link]. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/news/state-union-npm/) from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 2 August
2021.

32. Branscombe, Mary (4 May 2016). "JavaScript Standard Moves to Yearly Release Schedule;
Here is What's New for ES16" ([Link] . The New Stack.
Archived ([Link]
s2016/) from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 15 January 2021.

33. "The TC39 Process" ([Link] . [Link]. Ecma International.

Archived ([Link]
t/) from the original on 7 February 2021. Retrieved 15 January 2021.

34. "ECMAScript proposals" ([Link] .

TC39. Archived ([Link]
osals/blob/master/[Link]) from the original on 4 December 2020. Retrieved
15 January 2021.

35. Ashkenas, Jeremy. "List of languages that compile to JS" ([Link]

escript/wiki/List-of-languages-that-compile-to-JS) . GitHub. Archived ([Link]
web/20200131233044/[Link]
compile-to-JS) from the original on 31 January 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2020.

36. "U.S. Trademark Serial No. 75026640" ([Link]

ype=SERIAL_NO&searchType=statusSearch) . [Link]. United States Patent and Trademark
Office. 6 May 1997. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/#caseNumber=75026640&caseType=SERIAL_NO&searchType=statusSearch) from the
original on 13 July 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.

37. "Legal Notices" ([Link] . [Link]. Oracle

Corporation. Archived ([Link]
m/legal/[Link]) from the original on 5 June 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
38. "Oracle to buy Sun in $7.4-bn deal" ([Link]
le-to-buy-sun-in-7-4-bn-deal/articleshow/[Link]) . The Economic Times. 21 April 2009.

39. Claburn, Thomas (17 September 2024). "Oracle urged again to give up JavaScript trademark"
([Link]
k/) . The Register. Retrieved 2 February 2025.

40. Krill, Paul (20 September 2024). "JavaScript community challenges Oracle's JavaScript
trademark" ([Link]
[Link]) . InfoWorld.

41. "Usage statistics of JavaScript libraries for websites" ([Link]

view/javascript_library) . W3Techs. Retrieved 9 April 2021.

42. "Using jQuery with Bootstrap" ([Link] .

[Link]. 10 June 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2024.

43. "Vanilla JS" ([Link] . [Link]. 16 June 2020. Archived ([Link]

[Link]/web/20200616052335/[Link] from the original on 16 June 2020.
Retrieved 17 June 2020.

44. "Server-Side JavaScript Guide" ([Link]

htm) . [Link]. Oracle Corporation. 11 December 1998. Archived ([Link]
web/20210311173120/[Link]
from the original on 11 March 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.

45. Clinick, Andrew (14 July 2000). "Introducing JScript .NET" ([Link]
ibrary/[Link]) . Microsoft Developer Network. Microsoft. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20171110201649/[Link]
from the original on 10 November 2017. Retrieved 10 April 2018. "[S]ince the 1996 introduction
of JScript version 1.0 ... we've been seeing a steady increase in the usage of JScript on the
server—particularly in Active Server Pages (ASP)"

46. Mahemoff, Michael (17 December 2009). "Server-Side JavaScript, Back with a Vengeance" (htt
ps://[Link]/2009/12/17/server-side_javascript_back_with_a_vengeance/) .
[Link]. Archived ([Link]
m/2009/12/17/server-side_javascript_back_with_a_vengeance/) from the original on 17
June 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2016.
47. "JavaScript for Acrobat" ([Link] .
[Link]. 7 August 2009. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/devnet/acrobat/[Link]) from the original on 7 August 2009.
Retrieved 18 August 2009.

48. treitter (2 February 2013). "Answering the question: "How do I develop an app for GNOME?" " (h
ttps://[Link]/[Link]) . [Link]. Archived ([Link]
web/20130211032900/[Link] from the original on 11
February 2013. Retrieved 7 February 2013.

49. Ponge, Julien (19 April 2018). "Oracle Nashorn: A Next-Generation JavaScript Engine for the
JVM" ([Link] .
[Link]. Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 17 February 2025.

50. "Migration Guide from Nashorn to GraalJS" ([Link]

js/NashornMigrationGuide/) . [Link]. Retrieved 17 February 2025.

51. "GraalJS" ([Link] . GraalVM. Retrieved

17 February 2025.

52. "Java Interoperability" ([Link]

nual/js/JavaInteroperability/) . [Link]. Oracle. Retrieved 17 February 2025.

53. "Tessel 2... Leverage all the libraries of [Link] to create useful devices in minutes with
Tessel" ([Link] . [Link]. Archived ([Link]
9/[Link] from the original on 26 May 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.

54. "[Link] Raspberry Pi GPIO Introduction" ([Link]

rypi_gpio_intro.asp) . [Link]. Archived ([Link]
38/[Link] from the original
on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2020.

55. "Espruino – JavaScript for Microcontrollers" ([Link] . [Link].

Archived ([Link] from
the original on 1 May 2020. Retrieved 3 May 2020.

56. Looper, Jen (21 September 2015). "A Guide to JavaScript Engines for Idiots" ([Link]
[Link]/web/20181208123231/[Link]
es-for-idiots/) . Telerik Developer Network. Archived from the original ([Link]
com/featured/a-guide-to-javascript-engines-for-idiots/) on 8 December 2018. Retrieved
8 December 2018.
57. "How Blink Works" ([Link]
4kX8LFByQ5xQnUg) . Google. Retrieved 12 March 2024.

58. "Documentation · V8" ([Link] . Google. Retrieved 3 March 2024.

59. Nelaturu, Keerthi. "WebAssembly: What's the big deal?" ([Link]

ssembly-whats-the-big-deal-662396ff1cd6) . [Link]. Retrieved 3 March 2024.

60. "Concurrency model and Event Loop" ([Link]

pt/EventLoop) . Mozilla Developer Network. Archived ([Link]
045241/[Link] from the
original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2015.

61. Flanagan, David (17 August 2006). JavaScript: The Definitive Guide ([Link]
books?id=2weL0iAfrEMC) . O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-596-55447-7. Archived (http
s://[Link]/web/20200801065235/[Link]
C) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2019.

62. Korolev, Mikhail (1 March 2019). "JavaScript quirks in one image from the Internet" ([Link]
[Link]/mkrl/javascript-quirks-in-one-image-from-the-internet-52m7) . The DEV Community.
Archived ([Link]
in-one-image-from-the-internet-52m7) from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved
28 October 2019.

63. "Proposal-bigint/[Link] at master · tc39/Proposal-bigint" ([Link]

oposal-bigint/blob/master/[Link]#dont-break-asmjs) . GitHub.

64. Bernhardt, Gary (2012). "Wat" ([Link] . Destroy All

Software. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/talks/wat) from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2019.

65. "JavaScript data types and data structures" ([Link]

vaScript/Data_structures) . MDN. 16 February 2017. Archived ([Link]
0170314230542/[Link]
s) from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.

66. Flanagan 2006, pp. 176–178.

67. Crockford, Douglas. "Prototypal Inheritance in JavaScript" ([Link]

[Link]) . Archived ([Link]
[Link]/[Link]) from the original on 13 August 2013. Retrieved 20 August
2013.
68. "Inheritance and the prototype chain" ([Link]
ide/Inheritance_and_the_prototype_chain) . Mozilla Developer Network. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20130425144207/[Link]
e/Inheritance_and_the_prototype_chain) from the original on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 6 April
2013.

69. Herman, David (2013). Effective JavaScript ([Link]

AJ&pg=PA83) . Addison-Wesley. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-321-81218-6.

70. Ghandi, Raju (2019). JavaScript Next. New York City: Apress Media. pp. 159–171. ISBN 978-1-
4842-5394-6.

71. Haverbeke, Marijn (September 2024). Eloquent JavaScript ([Link]

ent_JavaScript.pdf) (PDF) (4th ed.). San Francisco: No Starch Press. pp. 97–98 ([Link]
[Link]/Eloquent_JavaScript.pdf#section*.204) . ISBN 978-1-71850-411-0. Archived
([Link]
[Link]) (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2025.

72. Katz, Yehuda (12 August 2011). "Understanding "Prototypes" in JavaScript" ([Link]
[Link]/2011/08/12/understanding-prototypes-in-javascript/) . Archived ([Link]
rg/web/20130405154842/[Link]
avascript/) from the original on 5 April 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013.

73. Herman, David (2013). Effective JavaScript ([Link]

AJ&pg=PA125) . Addison-Wesley. pp. 125–127. ISBN 978-0-321-81218-6.

74. "Function – JavaScript" ([Link]

Global_Objects/Function) . MDN Web Docs. Retrieved 30 October 2021.

75. "Properties of the Function Object" ([Link] . [Link].

Archived ([Link]
c) from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 26 May 2013.

76. Flanagan 2006, p. 141.

77. The many talents of JavaScript for generalizing Role-Oriented Programming approaches like
Traits and Mixins ([Link]
l#the-many-talents-of-javascript-for-generalizing-role-oriented-programming-approaches-like-tr
aits-and-mixins) Archived ([Link]
[Link]/2014/04/[Link]#the-many-talents-of-javascript-for-
generalizing-role-oriented-programming-approaches-like-traits-and-mixins) 2017-10-05 at the
Wayback Machine, [Link], April 11, 2014.
78. Traits for JavaScript ([Link] Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20140724052500/[Link] 2014-07-24 at the
Wayback Machine, 2010.

79. "Home | CocktailJS" ([Link] . [Link]. Archived ([Link]

[Link]/web/20170204083608/[Link] from the original on 4
February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.

80. Croll, Angus (31 May 2011). "A fresh look at JavaScript Mixins" ([Link]
[Link]/2011/05/31/a-fresh-look-at-javascript-mixins/) . JavaScript, JavaScript…. Archived
([Link]
1/05/31/a-fresh-look-at-javascript-mixins/) from the original on 15 April 2020.

81. "E4X – Archive of obsolete content" ([Link]

[Link]/en-US/docs/Archive/Web/E4X) . Mozilla Developer Network. Mozilla
Foundation. 14 February 2014. Archived from the original ([Link]
docs/Archive/Web/E4X) on 24 July 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2014.

82. "var – JavaScript" ([Link]

s/var) . The Mozilla Developer Network. Archived ([Link]
713/[Link] from
the original on 23 December 2012. Retrieved 22 December 2012.

83. "let" ([Link] .

MDN web docs. Mozilla. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/let) from the original
on 28 May 2019. Retrieved 27 June 2018.

84. "const" ([Link]

st) . MDN web docs. Mozilla. Archived ([Link]
s://[Link]/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/const) from
the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2018.

85. "Making JavaScript Safe for Advertising" ([Link] . ADsafe. Archived (http
s://[Link]/web/20210706153324/[Link] from the original on 6
July 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.

86. "Secure ECMA Script (SES)" ([Link] .

Archived ([Link]
iki/SecureEcmaScript) from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
87. "Google Caja Project" ([Link] . Google. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20210122083321/[Link] from the original on
22 January 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.

88. "Mozilla Cross-Site Scripting Vulnerability Reported and Fixed – MozillaZine Talkback" (https://
[Link]/[Link]?article=4392) . [Link]. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20110721230916/[Link]
from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2017.

89. Kottelin, Thor (17 June 2008). "Right-click "protection"? Forget about it" ([Link]
g/web/20110809195359/[Link]
n%E2%80%9D-forget-about-it/) . [Link]. Archived from the original ([Link]
t/2008/06/17/right-click-%E2%80%9Cprotection%E2%80%9D-forget-about-it/) on 9 August
2011. Retrieved 28 July 2022.

90. Rehorik, Jan (29 November 2016). "Why You Should Never Put Sensitive Data in Your
JavaScript" ([Link]
your-javascript/) . ServiceObjects Blog. ServiceObjects. Archived ([Link]
b/20190603142957/[Link]
-data-in-your-javascript/) from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 3 June 2019.

91. Lauinger, Tobias; Chaabane, Abdelberi; Arshad, Sajjad; Robertson, William; Wilson, Christo;
Kirda, Engin (21 December 2016), "Thou Shalt Not Depend on Me: Analysing the Use of
Outdated JavaScript Libraries on the Web" ([Link]
ps://[Link]/home/arshad/publications/[Link]) (PDF), Northeastern
University, arXiv:1811.00918 ([Link] ,
doi:10.14722/ndss.2017.23414 ([Link] , ISBN 978-1-
891562-46-4, S2CID 17885720 ([Link] ,
archived from the original ([Link]
[Link]) (PDF) on 29 March 2017, retrieved 28 July 2022

92. Collins, Keith (27 March 2016). "How one programmer broke the internet by deleting a tiny
piece of code" ([Link]
iny-piece-of-code/) . Quartz. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/646467/how-one-programmer-broke-the-internet-by-deleting-a-tiny-piece-of-code/)
from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2017.
 93. SC Magazine UK, Developer's 11 lines of deleted code 'breaks the internet' ([Link]
[Link]/developers-11-lines-of-deleted-code-breaks-the-internet/article/532050/)
Archived ([Link]
elopers-11-lines-of-deleted-code-breaks-the-internet/article/532050/) February 23, 2017, at
the Wayback Machine

94. Mozilla Corporation, Buffer overflow in [Link]() ([Link]

ounce/2006/[Link]) Archived ([Link]
tps://[Link]/security/announce/2006/[Link]) 2014-06-04 at the
Wayback Machine

95. Festa, Paul (19 August 1998). "Buffer-overflow bug in IE" ([Link]
25190522/[Link] . CNET. Archived from the
original ([Link] on 25 December 2002.

96. [Link], Apple Safari JavaScript Buffer Overflow Lets Remote Users Execute
Arbitrary Code and HTTP Redirect Bug Lets Remote Users Access Files ([Link]
[Link]/alerts/2006/Mar/[Link]) Archived ([Link]
849/[Link] 2010-02-18 at the Wayback
Machine

97. SecurityFocus, Microsoft WebViewFolderIcon ActiveX Control Buffer Overflow Vulnerability (htt
ps://[Link]/bid/19030/info) Archived ([Link]
11091819/[Link] 2011-10-11 at the Wayback
Machine

98. Fusion Authority, Macromedia Flash ActiveX Buffer Overflow ([Link]

m/security/[Link]) Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20110813160055/[Link]
[Link]) August 13, 2011, at the Wayback Machine

99. "Protected Mode in Vista IE7 – IEBlog" ([Link]

[Link]) . [Link]. 9 February 2006. Archived ([Link]
103719/[Link] from the original on
23 January 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2017.

100. US CERT, Vulnerability Note VU#713878: Microsoft Internet Explorer does not properly validate
source of redirected frame ([Link] Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20091030051811/[Link] 2009-10-30 at
the Wayback Machine
101. Mozilla Foundation, Mozilla Foundation Security Advisory 2005–41: Privilege escalation via
DOM property overrides ([Link]
l) Archived ([Link]
y/announce/2005/[Link]) 2014-06-04 at the Wayback Machine

102. Andersen, Starr (9 August 2004). "Part 5: Enhanced Browsing Security" ([Link]
com/en-us/previous-versions/windows/it-pro/windows-xp/bb457150(v=technet.10)) .
TechNet. Microsoft Docs. Changes to Functionality in Windows XP Service Pack 2. Retrieved
20 October 2021.

103. For one example of a rare JavaScript Trojan Horse, see Symantec Corporation, [Link].K (htt
ps://[Link]/security_response/[Link]?docid=2003-100111-0931-99)
Archived ([Link]
response/[Link]?docid=2003-100111-0931-99) 2011-09-13 at the Wayback Machine

104. Gruss, Daniel; Maurice, Clémentine; Mangard, Stefan (24 July 2015). "[Link]: A Remote
Software-Induced Fault Attack in JavaScript". arXiv:1507.06955 ([Link]
955) [[Link] ([Link] ].

105. Jean-Pharuns, Alix (30 July 2015). "[Link] Is the Most Ingenious Hack I've Ever Seen"
([Link] .
Motherboard. Vice. Archived ([Link]
[Link]/en_us/article/9akpwz/rowhammerjs-is-the-most-ingenious-hack-ive-ever-seen)
from the original on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 26 January 2018.

106. Goodin, Dan (4 August 2015). "DRAM 'Bitflipping' exploit for attacking PCs: Just add
JavaScript" ([Link]
-for-attacking-pcs-just-add-javascript/) . Ars Technica. Archived ([Link]
20180127143154/[Link]
exploit-for-attacking-pcs-just-add-javascript/) from the original on 27 January 2018.
Retrieved 26 January 2018.

107. Auerbach, David (28 July 2015). "Rowhammer security exploit: Why a new security attack is
truly terrifying" ([Link]
urity_exploit_why_a_new_security_attack_is_truly_terrifying.html) . [Link]. Archived (http
s://[Link]/web/20150730004023/[Link]
e/2015/07/rowhammer_security_exploit_why_a_new_security_attack_is_truly_terrifying.html)
from the original on 30 July 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
108. AnC ([Link] Archived ([Link]
6055626/[Link] 2017-03-16 at the Wayback Machine VUSec,
2017

109. New ASLR-busting JavaScript is about to make drive-by exploits much nastier ([Link]
[Link]/security/2017/02/new-aslr-busting-javascript-is-about-to-make-drive-by-exploits-much
-nastier/) Archived ([Link]
security/2017/02/new-aslr-busting-javascript-is-about-to-make-drive-by-exploits-much-nastie
r/) 2017-03-16 at the Wayback Machine Ars Technica, 2017

110. Spectre Attack ([Link] Archived ([Link]

b/20180103225843/[Link] 2018-01-03 at the Wayback
Machine Spectre Attack

111. "[Link]" ([Link] . [Link]. Archived ([Link]

[Link]/web/20161219182724/[Link] from the original on 19 December
2016. Retrieved 6 November 2016.

112. [Link]. "[Link] Performance Benchmarking Playground for JavaScript" ([Link]

h) . [Link]. Archived ([Link]
from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.

113. Eich, Brendan (3 April 2008). "Popularity" ([Link] .

Archived ([Link]
opularity/) from the original on 3 July 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2012.

114. "Edge Browser Switches WebAssembly to 'On' -- Visual Studio Magazine" ([Link]
[Link]/articles/2017/11/06/[Link]) . Visual Studio Magazine.
Archived ([Link]
rticles/2017/11/06/[Link]) from the original on 10 February 2018.
Retrieved 9 February 2018.

115. "frequently asked questions" ([Link] . [Link]. Archived ([Link]

[Link]/web/20140604012024/[Link] from the original on 4 June 2014.
Retrieved 13 April 2014.

Further reading

Flanagan, David (2020). JavaScript: The Definitive Guide (7th ed.). Sebastopol, California: O'Reilly.
ISBN 978-1-491-95202-3.
 Haverbeke, Marijn (2024). Eloquent JavaScript ([Link]
[Link]) (PDF) (4th ed.). San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-71850-411-0. Archived (http
s://[Link]/web/20250312193854/[Link]
df) (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2025.

Zakas, Nicholas (2014). Principles of Object-Oriented JavaScript (1st ed.). No Starch Press.
ISBN 978-1-59327-540-2.

External links

The Modern JavaScript Tutorial ([Link] . A community maintained continuously

updated collection of tutorials on the entirety of the language.

"JavaScript: The First 20 Years" ([Link] . Retrieved

6 February 2022.

Portal: Computer programming