Basic computer programming

Chapter one
Problem solving using computers
What is programming?
 Programming is a skill that can be acquired by a computer professional that gives
him/her the knowledge of making the computer perform the required operation or task.
Why do we need to learn computer programming?
 Computer programming is critical if one wants to know how to make the computer
perform a task. Most users of a computer only use the available applications on the
computer. These applications are produced by computer programmers. Thus if
someone is interested to make such kind of applications, he/she needs to learn how to
talk to the computer, which is learning computer programming.
What is programming language?
 Programming Language: is a set different category of written symbols that instruct
computer hardware to perform specified operations required by the designer.
What skills do we need to be a programmer?
For someone to be a programmer, in addition to basic skills in computer, needs to have the
following major skills:
 Programming Language Skill: knowing one or more programming language to talk
to the computer and instruct the machine to perform a task.
 Problem Solving Skill: skills on how to solve real world problem and represent the
solution in understandable format.
 Algorithm Development: skill of coming up with sequence of simple and human
understandable set of instructions showing the step of solving the problem. Those set
of steps should not be dependent on any programming language or machine.
In every programming Language there are sets of rules that govern the symbols used in a
programming language. These set of rules determine how the programmer can make the
computer hardware to perform a specific operation. These sets of rules are called syntax.
1.1. Generations of programming language.
 Programming languages are categorized into five generations: (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and
5th generation languages)

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 These programming languages can also be categorized into two broad categories: low
level and high-level languages.
o Low level languages are machine specific or dependent.
o High level languages like COBOL, BASIC are machine independent and can run
on variety of computers.
 From the five categories of programming languages, first and second-generation
languages are low level languages and the rest are high level programming languages.
 The higher the level of a language, the easier it is to understand and use by
programmers.
 Languages after the fourth generation are referred to as a very high-level language.
1.1.1. First Generation (Machine languages, 1940’s):
 Difficult to write applications with.
 Dependent on machine languages of the specific computer being used.
 Machine languages allow the programmer to interact directly with the
hardware, and it can be executed by the computer without the need for a
translator.
 Is more powerful in utilizing resources of the computer.
 Gives power to the programmer.
 They execute very quickly and use memory very efficiently.
1.1.2. Second Generation (Assembly languages, early 1950’s):
 Uses symbolic names for operations and storage locations.
 A system program called an assembler translates a program written in assembly
language to machine language.
 Programs written in assembly language are not portable. i.e., different
computer architectures have their own machine and assembly languages.
 They are highly used in system software development.
1.1.3. Third Generation (High level languages, 1950’s to 1970’s):
 Uses English like instructions and mathematicians were able to define variables
with statements such as Z = A + B
 Such languages are much easier to use than assembly language.

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 Programs written in high level languages need to be translated into machine

language in order to be executed.
 The use of common words (reserved words) within instructions makes them
easier to learn.
 All third-generation programming languages are procedural languages.
 In procedural languages, the programmer is expected to specify what is
required and how to perform it.
1.1.4. Fourth Generation (since late 1970’s):
 Have a simple, English like syntax rules; commonly used to access databases.
 Fourth generation languages are non-procedural languages.
 The non-procedural method is easier to write, but you have less control over
how each task is actually performed.
 In non-procedural languages the programmer is not required to write traditional
programming logic. Programmers concentrate on defining the input and output
rather than the program steps required.
o For example, a command, such as LIST, might display all the records in a
file on screen, separating fields with a blank space. In a procedural
language, all the logic for inputting each record, testing for end of file and
formatting each column on screen has to be explicitly programmed.
 Fourth generation languages have a minimum number of syntax rules. This
saves time and free professional programmers for more complex tasks.
 Some examples of 4GL are structured query languages (SQL), report
generators, application generators and graphics languages.
1.1.5. Fifth Generation (1990’s):
 These are used in artificial intelligence (AI) and expert systems; also used for
accessing databases.
 5GLs are “natural” languages whose instruction closely resembles human
speech. E.g. “get me Jone Brown’s sales figure for the 1997 financial year”.
 5GLs require very powerful hardware and software because of the complexity
involved in interpreting commands in human language.
1.2. Overview of Computers and Computer Organization.

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Regardless of differences in physical appearance, virtually every computer may be envisioned

as being divided into six logical units or sections:
 Input Unit: it obtains information from various input devices and places this
information at the disposal of the other units so that the information may be processed
or stored.
 Output Unit: it takes information that has been processed by the computer and places
it on various output devices to make the information available for use outside the
computer.
 Memory unit: it retains information that has been entered through the input unit, so
the information may be made immediately available for processing when it is needed.
The memory unit also retains processed information until that information can be
placed on output devices by the output unit.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): it is the computer’s coordinator and is responsible
for supervising the operations of the other sections. CPU tells the input unit when
information should be read into memory, tells ALU when information from the
memory should be used in calculation and tells output unit when to send information
from the memory to certain output devices.
 Arithmetic and Logic unit: is a part found inside the Central Processing Unit and is
responsible for performing calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division. It also performs comparisons.
 Secondary Storage device: Programs or data used by other units normally are placed
on secondary storage devices (such as disks) until they are needed, possibly hours,
days, months, or even years later.
1.3. The evolution of Operating Systems.
 Early computers were capable of performing only one job at a time. This form of
computer operation is often called single-user batch processing. The computer runs a
single program at a time while processing data in groups or batches.
 As computers became more powerful, it became evident that single-user batch
processing rarely utilizes the computer’s resources.

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 Therefore, computer developers thought that many jobs or tasks from different
programs or applications could be made to share the resources of the computer to
achieve better utilization. This concept is called multiprogramming.
 Multiprogramming involving the “simultaneous” operation of many jobs on the
computer.
 In the 1960’s, many groups, pioneered timesharing operating systems.
 Timesharing is a special case of multiprogramming, in which users access the
computers through terminals. Here, the computer does not run the users job
paralleling, but shares the CPU’s time.
1.4. Major Programming Paradigms
 The major land marks in the programming world are the different kinds of features or
properties observed in the development of programming languages. Among these the
following are worth mentioning: Procedural, Structured and Object-Oriented
Programming Paradigms.
1.4.1. Procedural Programming.
o Procedural programming is a programming paradigm based upon the concept of
procedure call. Procedural programming is often a better choice than simple sequential
programming in many situations which involve moderate complexity or which require
significant ease of maintainability.
o Possible benefits: the ability to re-use the same code (function or procedure) at
different places, an easier way to keep track of program flow than a collection of “GO
TO” or “JUMP” statements.
1.4.2. Structured Programming.
o Process of writing a program in small, independent parts. This makes it easier to
control a program's development and to design and test its individual component parts.
o Structured programs are built up from units called modules, which normally
correspond to single procedures or functions.
o Can be seen as a subset or sub discipline of procedural programming. It is most
famous for removing or reducing reliance on the GO TO statement.
1.4.3. Object-Oriented Programming.

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o The idea behind OOP is that, a computer program is composed of a collection of

individual units, or objects as opposed to traditional view in which a program is a list
of instructions to the computer.
o Object-oriented programming is claimed to give more flexibility, easing changes to
programs. The OOP approach is often simpler to develop and maintain.
1.5. Problem solving process and software engineering.
1.5.1. Software Engineering.
o Software engineering is the profession that creates and maintains software applications
by applying technologies and practices from computer science, project management,
engineering, application domain and other fields.
o The method used in solving problems in computer science and/or information systems
is called the software development life cycle.
o The software development life cycle has the following components.
preliminary investigation
analysis
design
implementation
testing and maintenance
1.5.2. Problem Solving
o Problem solving is the process of transforming the description of a problem into the
solution by using our knowledge of the problem domain and by relying on our ability
to select and use appropriate problem-solving strategies, techniques, and tools.
o A problem is an undesirable situation that prevents the organization from fully
achieving its purpose, goals and objectives. Or problem can also be defined as the gap
between the existing and the desired situation where problem solving will try to fill
this gap.
 There are two approaches of problem solving:
 Top-down design: is a systematic approach based on the concept that the structure
of the problem should determine the structure of the solution and what should be

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done in lower level. This approach will try to disintegrate a larger problem into
more smaller and manageable problems to narrow the problem domain.
 Bottom-up design: is the reverse process where the lowest level component are
built first and the system builds up from the bottom until the whole process is
finally completed.
1.6. Basic Program development tips
 The program we design in any programming language need to be:
 Reliable: the program should always do what it is expected to do and handle all
types of exception.
 Maintainable: the program should be in a way that it could be modified and
upgraded when the need arises.
 Portable: It needs to be possible to adapt the software written for one type of
computer to another with minimum modification.
 Efficient: the program should be designed to make optimal use of time, space and
other resources of the computer.
1.7. Algorithm designing and modeling the logic (using flow chart).
 A digital computer is a useful tool for solving a great variety of problems. A solution
to a problem is called an algorithm; it describes the sequence of steps to be performed
for the problem to be solved.
 Generally, an algorithm is a finite set of well-defined instructions for accomplishing
some tasks which, given an initial state, will terminate in a corresponding recognizable
end-state.
 The algorithm should be:
Precise and unambiguous
Simple
Correct
Efficient
1.7.1. Modeling a programs logic using flow chart
 Algorithm could be designed using many techniques and tools. One tool of designing
algorithm is by using flowcharts. Flowchart is a graphical way of expressing the steps
needed to solve a problem.

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 A flow chart is a schematic (diagrammatic description) representation of a process.

 Basic flowcharting symbols are:
Terminal point

Decision

Process

Input/Output

Flow line

E.g: to check weather a number is positive or negative.

Start

Enter number

Num/2==0
Display even Display odd

End

1.8. Compilers and Interpreters.

 Any program written in a language other than machine language needs to be translated
to machine language. The set of instructions that do this task are known as translators.

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 There is different translator software, among which compilers and interpreters are of
the most for programmers.
Compilers: a compiler is a computer program that translates a series of statements
written in source code (a collection of statements in a specific programming language)
into a resulting object code (translated instructions of the statements in a programming
language). A compiler changes or translates the whole source code into executable
machine code (also called object code) which is output to a file for latter execution. E.g.,
C++, Pascal, FORTRAN, etc.
Interpreters: is a computer program that translates a single high-level statement and
executes it and then goes to the next high level language line etc. E.g., QBASIC, Lisp etc.
1.9. Mechanics of Creating a program (C++)
C++ programs typically go through five phases to be executed: these are edit, preprocess,
compile, link, load:
Edit: this is accomplished with an editor program. The programmer types C++ statements
with the editor and makes corrections if necessary. The programs source file is then stored on
secondary storage device such as a disk with a “.cpp” file name.
After the program is edited, C++ is principally compiled in three phases: preprocessing,
translation to object code, and linking (the last two phases are what is generally thought of as
the "compilation" process).
Preprocess: In a C++ system, a preprocessor program executes automatically before the
compiler’s translation phase begins. The C++ preprocessor obeys command called
preprocessor directives, which indicate that certain manipulations are to be performed on the
program before compilation. The preprocessor is invoked by the compiler before the program
is converted to machine language. The C++ preprocessor goes over the program text and
carries out the instructions specified by the preprocessor directives (e.g., #include). The result
is a modified program text which no longer contains any directives.
Compile: Then, the C++ compiler translates the program code. The compiler may be a true
C++ compiler which generates native (assembly or machine) code. The outcome may be
incomplete due to the program referring to library routines which are not defined as a part of
the program. For example, the << operator which is actually defined in a separate IO library.

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Linking: C++ programs typically contain references to functions and data defined elsewhere,
such as in the standard libraries. The object code produced by the C++ compiler typically
contains “holes” due to these missing parts. A linker links the object code with the code for
the missing function to produce an executable image (with no missing pieces). Generally, the
linker completes the object code by linking it with the object code of any library modules that
the program may have referred to. The final result is an executable file
Loading: the loader takes the executable file from disk and transfers it to memory. Additional
components from shared libraries that support the program are also loaded. Finally, the
computer, under the control of its CPU, executes the program.

Chapter two
Fundamentals of C++ programming language
2.1. The parts of a C++ Program.

 To understand the basic parts of a simple program in C++, let’s have a look at the
following code:
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
cout<<”\n Hello world!” ;
getch();
}
 Any c++ program file should be saved with file name extension “.CPP”
 Type the program directly into the editor, and save the file as [Link], compile it and then
run it. It will print the words Hello world! On the computer screen.

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 The first character is the #. This character is a signal to the preprocessor. Each time you
start your computer, the preprocessor runs through the program and looks for the pound (#)
symbols and act on those lines before the compiler runs.
 The include instruction is a preprocessor instruction that directs the compiler to include a
copy of the file specified in the angle brackets in the source code.
 If the path of the file is not specified, the preprocessor looks for the file under c:\tc\include\
folder or in include folder of the location where the editor is stored.
 The effects of line 1, i.e. include<iostream.h> is to include the file iostream.h into the
program as if the programmer had actually typed it.
 When the program starts, main() is called automatically.
 Every C++ program has a main() function.
 The return value type for main() here is void, which means main function will not return a
value to the caller (which is the operating system).
 The main function can be made to return a value to the operating system.
 The Left French brace “{“signals the beginning of the main function body and the
corresponding Right French Brace “}” signals the end of the main function body. Every
Left French Brace needs to have a corresponding Right French Brace.
 The lines we find between the braces are statements or said to be the body of the function.
 A statement is a computation step which may produce a value or interact with input and
output streams.
 The end of a single statement ends with semicolon (;).
 The statement in the above example causes the sting “Hello world!” to be sent to the “cout”
stream which will display it on the computer screen.
2.2. A brief look at cout and cin

 Cout is an object used for printing data to the screen.

 To print a value to the screen, write the word cout, followed by the insertion operator also
called output redirection operator (<<) and the object name to be printed on the screen.
 Syntax: Cot<<Object
 The object at the righthand side can be:
 A literal string: “Hello world!”

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 A variable: a place holder in memory

 Cin is an object used for taking input from the keyboard.
 To take input from the keyboard, write the word cin, followed by the input redirection
operator(>>) and the object name to hold the input value.
 Syntax: Cin>>Object
 Cin will take value from the keyboard and store it in the memory. Thus, the cin statement
needs a variable which is a reserved memory place holder.
 Both << and >> return their right operand as their result, enabling multiple input or
multiple output operations to be combined into one statement. The following example will
illustrate how multiple input and output can be performed:
E.g.:
 Cin>>var1>>var2>>var3;
Here three different values will be entered for the three variables. The input should be
separated by a space, tab or newline for each variable.
 Cout<<var1<<”,”<<var2<<” and”<<var3;
Here the values of the three variables will be printed where there is a “,” (comma)
between the first and the second variables and the “and” word between the second and
the third.
2.3. Putting Comments on C++ programs
 A comment is a piece of descriptive text which explains some aspect of a program.
 Program comments are text totally ignored by the compiler and are only intended to
inform the reader how the source code is working at any particular point in the
program.
 C++ provides two types of comment delimiters:
Single Line Comment: Anything after // {double forward slash} (until the end of the
line on which it appears) is considered a comment.
Eg:
cout<<var1; //this line prints the value for var1
Multiple Line Comment: Anything enclosed by the pair /* and */ is considered a
comment.
E.g:

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/* this is a kind of comment where

Multiple lines can be enclosed in
One C++ program*/
 Comments should be used to enhance (not to hinder) the readability of a program. The
following two points, in particular, should be noted:
 A comment should be easier to read and understand than the code which it tries to
explain. A confusing or unnecessarily-complex comment is worse than no comment at
all.
 Over-use of comments can lead to even less readability. A program which contains so
much comment that you can hardly see the code can by no means be considered
readable.
 Use of descriptive names for variables and other entities in a program, and proper
indentation of the code can reduce the need for using comments.
Chapter three
Constants, Variables, data Types and Operators
Variables and Constants.
Variables.
 A variable is a reserved place in memory to store information in.
 A variable will have three components:
 Variables are used for holding data values so that they can be used in various
computations in a program.
 All variables have three important properties:
Data Type: a type which is established when the variable is defined. (e.g. integer,
real, character etc). Data type describes the property of the data and the size of the
reserved memory
Name: a name which will be used to refer to the value in the variable. A unique
identifier for the reserved memory location
Value: a value which can be changed by assigning a new value to the variable.
Fundamental Variable types.

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 Several other variable types are built into C++. They can be conveniently classified as
integer, floating-point or character variables.
 Floating-point variable types can be expressed as fraction i.e. they are “real numbers”.
 Character variables hold a single byte. They are used to hold 256 different characters
and symbols of the ASCII and extended ASCII character sets.
 The type of variables used in C++ program are described in the next table, which lists
the variable type, how much room
Data types
Type Length Range
Unsigned char 8 bits 0 to 255
Char 8 bits -128 to 127
enum 6 bits -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 16 bits 0 to 65,535
short int 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767
int 16 bits -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned long 32 bits 0 to 4,294,967,295
long 32 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
float 32 bits -3.4x10-38 to 3.4x10+38
double 64 bits -1.7x10-308 to 1.7x10+308
long double 80 bits -3.4x10-4932 to 1.1x10+4932
bool 8 bits true or false (top 7 bits are
ignored

Signed and Unsigned.

 Signed integers are either negative or positive. Unsigned integers are always positive.
 Because both signed and unsigned integers require the same number of bytes, the
largest number (the magnitude) that can be stored in an unsigned integer is twice as the
largest positive number that can be stored in a signed integer.
Declaring Variables.
 Variables can be created in a process known as declaration.
 Syntax: Datatype Variable_Name;

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 The declaration will instruct the computer to reserve a memory location with the name
and size specified during the declaration.
 Good variable names indicate the purpose of the variable or they should be self-
descriptive. E.g., int myAge; //variable used to store my age
 The name of a variable sometimes is called an identifier which should be unique in a
program.
 Certain words are reserved by C++ for specific purposes and cannot be used as
identifiers.
 These are called reserved words or keywords and are summarized in the following
table.
asm continue Float New signed try
auto Default For operator sizeof typedef
break delete Friend private static union
case do Goto protected struct unsigned
catch double If public switch virtual
char else Inline register template void
class enum Int return this volatile
const extern Long short throw while

Identifiers
 A valid identifier is a sequence of one or more letters, digits or underlined symbols.
The length of an identifier is not limited.
 Neither space nor marked letters can be part of an identifier.
 Only letters, digits and underlined characters are valid.
 Variable identifiers should always begin with a letter or an underscore. By any means
they should begin with a digit.
 Key words should not be used as names for identifiers.
 C++ is not case sensitive. Small letter and capital letters are different for C++. Eg:
variable Age is not identical with variable age
Initializing Variables.

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 When a variable is assigned a value at the time of declaration, it is called variable

initialization.
 This is identical with declaring a variable and then assigning a value to the variable
immediately after declaration.
 The syntax:
 DataType variable name = initial value;
e.g., int a = 0;
or: int a;
a=0;
Scope of Variables.
 Scope of a variable is the boundary or block in a program where a variable can be
accessed. The boundary or block is identified by the left and right French brackets.
 In C++, we can declare variables anywhere in the source code. But we should declare
a variable before using it no matter where it is written.
 Global variables: are variables that can be referred/accessed anywhere in the code,
within any function, as long as it is declared first. A variable declared before any
function immediately after the include statements are global variables.
 Local Variables: the scope of the local variable is limited to the code level or block
within which they are declared.
 In the following example, the integer data type num1 is accessible everywhere whereas
z and is only accessible in the add function and num2 is accessible in main function.
This means cout<<z; or any statement involving z is only valid in add function.
E.g:
#include<iostream.h>
int num1;
int add(int x, int y)
{
int z;
…..
}
void main()

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{
unsigned short age;
float num2;
cout<< “\n enter your age:”;
…..
}
 In C++ the scope of a local variable is given by the block in which it is declared.
 If it is declared within a function, it will be a variable with a function scope. If it is
declared in a loop, its scope will be only in the loop, etc.
Defining a data type (User defined data type)
 The “typedef” Keyword is used to define a data type by the programmer as the user of
a programming language is a programmer.
 It is very difficult to write unsigned short int many times in your program if many
variables need such kind of declaration.
 C++ enables you to substitute an alias for such phrase by using the keyword typedef,
which stands for type definition.
E.g.
#include<iostream.h>
typedef unsigned short int USHORT;
void main()
{
USHORT width = 9;
…
}
 Immediately after the second line, whenever the compiler encounters the word
USHORT it will substitute is with “unsigned short int”.
Characters.
 Characters variables (type char) are typically one byte in size, enough to hold 256
different values. A char can be represented as a small number (0 - 255).
 Char in C++ are represented as any value inside a single quote. E.g.: ‘x’, ‘A’, ‘5’, ‘a’,
etc.

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 When the compiler finds such values (characters), it translates back the value to the
ASCII values. E.g. ‘a’ has a value 97 in ASCII.
Special Printing characters.
 In C++, there are some special characters used for formatting. These are:
\n new line
\t tab
\b backspace
\” double quote
\’ single quote
\? Question mark
\\ backslash
Constants.
 A constant is any expression that has a fixed value.
 Like variables, constants are data storage locations in the computer memory. But,
constants, unlike variables their content cannot be changed after the declaration.
 Constants must be initialized when they are created by the program, and the
programmer can’t assign a new value to a constant later.
 C++ provides two types of constants: literal and symbolic constants.
 Literal constant: is a value typed directly into the program wherever it is needed.
E.g.: int num = 43;
43 is a literal constant in this statement:
 Symbolic constant: is a constant that is represented by a name, similar to that of a
variable. But unlike a variable, its value can’t be changed after initialization.
E.g.: Int studentPerClass =15;
students = classes * studentPerClass;
studentPerClass is a symbolic constant having a value of 15. And 15 is a literal
constant directly typed in the program.
 In C++, we have two ways to declare a symbolic constant. These are using the #define
and the const key word.
defining constants with #define:
 The #define directive makes a simple text substitution.

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 The define directive can define only integer constants

E.g.: #define studentPerClass 15
 In our example, each time the preprocessor sees the word studentPerClass, it inserts 15
into the text.
defining constants with the const key word:
 Here, the constant has a type, and the compiler can ensure that the constant is used
according to the rules for that type.
E.g.: const unsigned short int studentPerClass = 15;
Enumerated constants.
 Used to declare multiple integer constants using a single line with different features.
 Enables programmers to define variables and restrict the value of that variable to a set
of possible values which are integer.
 The enum type cannot take any other data type than integer
 enum types can be used to set up collections of named integer constants. (The keyword
enum is short for ``enumerated''.)
 The traditional way of doing this was something like this:
#define SPRING 0
#define SUMMER 1
#define FALL 2
 An alternate approach using enum would be
enum {SPRING, SUMMER, FALL, WINTER};
 You can declare COLOR to be an enumeration, and then you can define five possible
values for COLOR: RED, BLUE, GREEN, WHITE and BLACK.
E.g.: enum COLOR {RED, BLUE, GREEN, WHITE, BLACK};
 Every enumerated constant has an integer value. If the programmer does not specify
otherwise, the first constant will have the value 0, and the values for the remaining
constants will count up from the initial value by 1. thus, in our previous example
RED=0, BLUE=1, GREEN=3, WHITE=4 and BLACK=5
 But one can also assign different numbers for each.
E.g.: enum COLOR {RED=100, BLUE, GREEN=500, WHITE, BLACK};

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Where RED will have 100 and BLUE will have 101 while GREEN will have 500,
WHITE 501 and BLACK 502.
Setting aside memory/memory concept.
 A computer provides RAM for storing executable program code as well as the data the
program manipulates.
 Memory can be thought of as a contiguous sequence of bits, each of which is capable
of storing a binary digit. Typically, the memory is divided into groups of 8 consecutive
bits called bytes.
 The bytes are sequentially addressed. Therefore, each byte can be uniquely identified
by its address.

Expressions and Statements.

 In C++, a statement controls the sequence of execution, evaluates an expression, or
does nothing (the null statement).
 All C++ statements end with a semicolon.
E.g.: x = a + b;
The meaning is: assign the value of the sum of a and b to x.
 White spaces: white spaces characters (spaces, tabs, new lines) can’t be seen and
generally ignored in statements. White spaces should be used to make programs more
readable and easier to maintain.
 Blocks: a block begins with an opening French brace ({) and ends with a closing
French brace (}).

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 Expressions: an expression is a computation which yields a value. It can also be

viewed as any statement that evaluates to a value (returns a value).
E.g.: the statement 3+2; returns the value 5 and thus is an expression.
 Some examples of an expression:
E.g.1:
3.2 returns the value 3.2
PI float constant that returns the value 3.14 if the constant is defined.
secondsPerMinute integer constant that returns 60 if the constant is declared
E.g.2: complicated expressions:
x = a + b;
y = x = a + b;
The second line is evaluated in the following order:
1. add a to b.
2. assign the result of the expression a + b to x.
3. assign the result of the assignment expression x = a + b to y.
Operators.
 An operator is a symbol that makes the machine to take an action.
 Different Operators act on one or more operands and can also have different kinds of
operators.
 C++ provides several categories of operators, including the following:
 Assignment operator
 Arithmetic operator
 Relational operator
 Logical operator
 Increment/decrement operator
 Conditional operator
 Comma operator
 The size of operator
 Explicit type casting operators, etc
Assignment operator (=).

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 The assignment operator causes the operand on the left side of the assignment
statement to have its value changed to the value on the right side of the statement.
 Syntax: Operand1=Operand2;
 Operand1 is always a variable
 Operand2 can be one or combination of:
 A literal constant: Eg: x=12;
 A variable: Eg: x=y;
 An expression: Eg: x=y+2;
Compound assignment operators (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=, &=, ^=).
 Compound assignment operator is the combination of the assignment operator with
other operators like arithmetic and bit wise operators.
 The assignment operator has a number of variants, obtained by combining it with other
operators.
E.g.:
value += increase; is equivalent to value = value + increase;
a -= 5; is equivalent to a = a – 5;
a /= b; is equivalent to a = a / b;
price *= units + 1 is equivalent to price = price * (units + 1);
Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %).
 Except for remainder or modulo (%), all other arithmetic operators can accept a mix of
integers and real operands. Generally, if both operands are integers then, the result will
be an integer. However, if one or both operands are real then the result will be real.
 When both operands of the division operator (/) are integers, then the division is
performed as an integer division and not the normal division we are used to.
 Integer division always results in an integer outcome.
 Division of integer by integer will not round off to the next integer
E.g.:
9/2 gives 4 not 4.5
-9/2 gives -4 not -4.5
 To obtain a real division when both operands are integers, you should cast one of the
operands to be real.

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E.g.:
int cost = 100;
int volume = 80;
double unitPrice = cost/(double)volume;
 The module(%) is an operator that gives the remainder of a division of two integer
values. For instance, 13 % 3 is calculated by integer dividing 13 by 3 to give an
outcome of 4 and a remainder of 1; the result is therefore 1.
E.g.:
a = 11 % 3
a is 2
Relational operator (==, !=, > , =, <=).
 In order to evaluate a comparison between two expressions, we can use the relational
operator.
 The result of a relational operator is a bool value that can only be true or false
according to the result of the comparison.
E.g.:
(7 = = 5) would return false or returns 0
(5 > 4) would return true or returns 1
 The operands of a relational operator must evaluate to a number. Characters are valid
operands since they are represented by numeric values. For E.g.:
‘A’ < ‘F’ would return true or 1. it is like (65 < 70)
Logical Operators (!, &&, ||):
 Logical negation (!) is a unary operator, which negates the logical value of its operand.
If its operand is non zero, it produce 0, and if it is 0 it produce 1.
 Logical AND (&&) produces 0 if one or both of its operands evaluate to 0 otherwise it
produces 1.
 Logical OR (||) produces 0 if both of its operands evaluate to 0 otherwise, it produces
1. E.g.:
!20 //gives 0
10 & 5 //gives 1
10 | 5.5 //gives 1

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10 && 0 // gives 0
N.B. In general, any non-zero value can be used to represent the logical true, whereas only
zero represents the logical false.
Increment/Decrement Operators: (++) and (--)
 The auto increment (++) and auto decrement (--) operators provide a convenient way
of, respectively, adding and subtracting 1 from a numeric variable.
E.g.:
if a was 10 and if a++ is executed then a will automatically changed to 11.
Prefix and Postfix:
 The prefix type is written before the variable. Eg (++ myAge), whereas the postfix
type appears after the variable name (myAge ++).
 Prefix and postfix operators cannot be used at once on a single variable: Eg: ++age--
or --age++ or ++age++ or - - age - - is invalid
 In a simple statement, either type may be used. But in complex statements, there will
be a difference.
 The prefix operator is evaluated before the assignment, and the postfix operator is
evaluated after the assignment.
E.g.
int k = 5;
(auto increment prefix) y= ++k + 10; //gives 16 for y
(auto increment postfix) y= k++ + 10; //gives 15 for y
(auto decrement prefix) y= --k + 10; //gives 14 for y
(auto decrement postfix) y= k-- + 10; //gives 15 for y
Conditional Operator (?:)
 The conditional operator takes three operands. It has the general form:
Syntax:
operand1 ? operand2 : operand3
 First operand1 is a relational expression and will be evaluated. If the result of the
evaluation is non zero (which means TRUE), then operand2 will be the final result.
Otherwise, operand3 is the final result.
E.g.:

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General Example
Z=(X<Y?X:Y)
This expression means that if X is less than Y the value of X will be assigned to Z
otherwise (if X>=Y) the value of Y will be assigned to Z.
E.g.:
int m=1,n=2,min;
min = (m < n ? m : n);
The value stored in min is 1.
E.g.: (7 = = 5 ? 4: 3) returns 3 since 7 is not equal to 5
Comma Operator (,).
 Multiple expressions can be combined into one expression using the comma operator.
 The comma operator takes two operands. Operand1, Operand2
 The comma operator can be used during multiple declaration, for the condition
operator and for function declaration, etc
 It the first evaluates the left operand and then the right operand, and returns the value
of the latter as the final outcome.
E.g.
int m, n, min;
int mCount = 0, nCount = 0;
min = (m < n? (mCount++, m) : (nCount++ , n));
 Here, when m is less than n, mCount++ is evaluated and the value of m is stored in
min. otherwise, nCount++ is evaluated and the value of n is stored in min.
The sizeof() Operator.
 This operator is used for calculating the size of any data item or type.
 It takes a single operand (e.g., 100) and returns the size of the specified entity in bytes.
The outcome is totally machine dependent.
E.g.:
a = sizeof(char)
b = sizeof(int)
c = sizeof(1.55) etc
Explicit type casting operators.

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 Type casting operators allows you to convert a datum of a given type to another data
type.
E.g.
int i;
float f = 3.14;
i = (int)f; equivalent to i = int(f);
Then variable i will have a value of 3 ignoring the decimal point
Operator Precedence.
 The order in which operators are evaluated in an expression is significant and is
determined by precedence rules. Operators in higher levels take precedence over
operators in lower levels.
Precedence Table:
Level Operator Order
Highest ++ -- (post fix) Right to left
sizeof() ++ -- (prefix) Right to left
*/% Left to right
+- Left to right
< <= > >= Left to right
== != Left to right
&& Left to right
|| Left to right
?: Left to right
= ,+=, -=, *=, /=,^= ,%=, &= ,|= ,<<= ,>>= Right to left
, Left to right
E.g.
a==b+c*d
c * d is evaluated first because * has a higher precedence than + and = =.
The result is then added to b because + has a higher precedence than = = And
then == is evaluated.
 Precedence rules can be overridden by using brackets.

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E.g.
rewriting the above expression as: a = = (b + c) * d causes + to be evaluated before *.
 Operators with the same precedence level are evaluated in the order specified by the
column on the table of precedence rule.
E.g.
a = b += c the evaluation order is right to left, so the first b += c is evaluated followed
by a = b.

Chapter four
Control Flow Statements
4.1. Selection Statements
 Selection statements are statements in a program where there are points at which the
program will decide at runtime whether some part of the code should or should not be
executed.
 There are two types of selection statements in C++, which are the “if statement” and
the “switch statement”
4.1.1. The if Statement
 It is sometimes desirable to make the execution of a statement dependent upon a
condition being satisfied.
 The different forms of the ‘If” statement will be used to decide whether to execute part
of the program based on a condition which will be tested either for TRUE or FALSE
result.
 The different forms of the “If” statement are:
 The simple if statement
 The If else statement
 The if else if statement
 The simple if statement
 The simple if statement will decide only one part of the program to be executed if the
condition is satisfied or ignored if the condition fails.
 The General Syntax is:

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if (expression)
statements;
 In any “if” statement, first the “expression” will be evaluated and if the outcome is non
zero (which means TRUE), then the “statements” is executed. Otherwise, nothing
happens (the statement will not be executed) and execution resumes to the line
immediately after the “if” block.
 To make multiple statements dependent on the same condition we can use a compound
statement, which will be implemented by embracing the group of instructions within
the left “{“ and right “}” French bracket.
E.g.:
if(age>18)
cout<<“You are an adult!”;
E.g:
if(balance>0)
{
interest = balance * creditRate;
balance += interest;
}
 Most of the time “expression” will have relational expressions testing whether
something is equal, greater, less, or different from something else.
 It should be noted that the output of a relational expression is either True (represented
by anything different from zero) or False (represented by Zero).
 Thus any expression, whose final result is either zero or none zero can be used in
“expression”
E.g.:
int x;
cin>>x;
if(x)
cout<<“You are an adult!”;
 In the above example, the value of variable x will be an input from the user. The “if”
statement will be true if the user gives anything different from zero, which means the

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message “you are an adult” will be displayed on the screen. If the user gives zero value
for x, which will be interpreted as False, nothing will be done as the if statement is not
satisfied.
 Thus, expression and be:
 Relational expression,
 A variable,
 A literal constant, or
 Assignment operation, as the final result is whatever we have at the right-hand
side and the one at the left hand side is a variable.
 The If else statement
 Another form of the “if” is the “if …else” statement.
 The “if else if” statement allows us to specify two alternative statements:
 One which will be executed if a condition is satisfied and
 Another which will be executed if the condition is not satisfied.
 The General Syntax is:
if (expression)
statements1;
else
statements2;
 First “expression” is evaluated and if the outcome is none zero (true), then
“statements1” will be executed. Otherwise, which means the “expression” is false
“statements2” will be executed.
E.g.:
if(balance > 0)
{
interest = balance * creditRate;
balance += interest;
}
else {
interest = balance * debitRate;

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balance += interest;
}
E.g.:
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main()
{
int age;
cout<<“Enter your age ”;
cin>>age
If(age>18)
cout<<“You are an adult!”;
else
cout<<“You are a kid!”;
getch();
return 0;
}
 The “if else if” statement
 The “if else if” statement is allows us to specify more than two alternative statements
each will be executed based on testing one or more conditions.
 The General Syntax is:
if (expression1)
statements1;
else if(expression2) statements2;
.
.
.
else if(expressionN)
statementsN;
else statements
E.g.:
if(score>=90)
cout<<“\n your grade is A”;

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else if(score>=80)
cout<<“\n your grade is B”;
else if(score>=70)
cout<<“\n your grade is C”;
else if(score>=60)
cout<<“\n your grade is D”;
else
cout<<“\n your grade is F”;
 Nesting If statements within another if statement
 One or more if statements can be nested with in another if statement.
 The nesting will be used to test multiple conditions to perform a task.
 It is always recommended to indent nested if statements to enhance readability of a
program
 The General Syntax might be:
if (expression1)
{
if (expression2)
statementsN;
else
statementsM;
}
else
{
if (expression3)
statementsR;
else
statementsT;
}
E.g.:
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main()
{
int age, testScore;
cout<<“Enter your test score ”;
cin>>testScore
cout<<“Enter your age ”;

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cin>>age
If(testScore>=70)
{
if(age<10)
cout<<“You did a great job! ”;
else
cout<<“You did pass!”;
}
else
cout<<“You didn’t pass!”;
getch();
return 0;
}
4.1.2. The Switch Statement

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