STAT 311 - BASIC STATISTICS

Learning Module in
0
Basic Statistics

Prepared by:

Rica Mae D. Rio, LPT

Course Instructor

E-mail: ricamaedelfinrio@[Link]
Facebook: facebook/[Link]

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MODULE 2
BASIC STATISTICS
PRELIMINARIES

Course Title: Basic Statistics

Course No.: STAT 311
Course Description: This is a 3-unit (3 hour - lecture/week) undergraduate course that deals with the
descriptive and inferential statistics. This includes definition of general terms in
Statistics, collection of data, sampling, statistical organization and presentation of
data, measuring of central tendency, point measures, measures of variability, normal
probability distribution, linear correlation, regression equation and prediction,
weighted mean of non-discrete variable, difference between means, chi-square and
analysis of variance. May use any available computer application software such as
SPSS, MathLab or others.

OVERVIEW

Statistics is directly related to every aspect of a person's professional and personal life. Every day,
one receives and summarizes information, both verbal and numerical, draws conclusions, and formulates
plans of action based on one's evaluations. As such, statistics has become a valuable tool whenever a
person interprets facts, makes inferences, and undertakes research. A good background in algebra and set
operations will also help in understanding the basic concepts of descriptive and inferential statistics
discussed in the chapters.

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lessons, the students must have:

a. defined some basic terms in the formulation of frequency distribution.

b. organized statistical data into a frequency distribution.
c. constructed tables/graphs to present statistical data using technology.

TOPIC OUTLINE
• Chapter 2: Frequency Distribution and Graphs
➢ Introduction
➢ Defining Some Terms
➢ Constructing Frequency Distribution
➢ Stem-and-Leaf Plot
➢ Graphing Frequency Distribution

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➢ Other Types of Graphs/Charts

➢ Guidelines for Developing Good Graphs/Charts

CONTENT/DISCUSSION

A. Introduction

When conducting a statistical research, investigation or study, the research must gather data for
the particular variable under investigation. To describe situations, make conclusions, and draw inferences
about events, the researcher must organize the data gathered in some meaningful way. The easiest way
and widely used of organizing data is to construct a frequency distribution. A frequency distribution is a
grouping of the data into categories showing the number of observations in each of the non-overlapping
classes.
After organizing data, the next move of the researcher is to present the data so they can be
understood easily by those who will benefit from reading the study. The most useful method of presenting
data is by constructing graphs and charts. There are number of ways to plot graphs and charts, and each
one has a specific purpose. This chapter discussed how to organize data by constructing frequency
distribution and how to present data by constructing graphs and charts.

B. Defining Some Terms

Before we get started in constructing frequency distribution, we must define some terms that are
essential to understand deeper the nature of data that are displayed in a frequency distribution.
• Raw data is the data collected in original form.
• Range is the difference of the highest value and the lowest value in a distribution.
• Frequency distribution is the organization of data in a tabular form, using mutually exclusive
classes showing the number of observations in each.
• Class Limits (or Apparent Limits) is the highest and lowest values describing a class.
• Class Boundaries (or Real Limits) is the upper and lower values of a class for group frequency
distribution whose values has additional decimal place more than the class limits and end with the
digit 5.
• Interval (or width) is the distance between the class lower boundary and the class upper boundary
and it is denoted by the symbol i.
• Frequency is the number of values in a specific class of a frequency distribution.
• Relative Frequency (rf) is the value obtained when the frequencies in each class of the frequency
distribution is divided by the total number of value.
• Percentage is obtained by multiplying the relative frequency by 100%.
• Cumulative Frequency (cf) is the sum of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper boundary
of a class in a frequency distribution.
• Midpoint is the point halfway between the class limits of each class and is representative of the
data within that class.

C. Constructing Frequency Distribution

A grouped frequency distribution is used when the range of the data set is large; the data must be
grouped into classes whether it is categorical data or interval data. For interval data the classes is more

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than one unit in width. The procedure for constructing the frequency distribution is discussed in the
succeeding sections.

Categorical Frequency Distribution

The categorical frequency distribution is used to organized nominal-level or ordinal-level
type of data. Some examples where we can apply this distribution are gender, business type,
political affiliation, and others.

Example: Twenty applicants were given a performance evaluation appraisal. The data set is

High High High Low Average

Average Low Average Average Average
Low Average Average High High
Low Low Average High High

Construct a frequency distribution for the data.

Solution:
Step 1: Construct a table as shown below.
Class Tally Frequency Percent
High
Average
Low

Step 2: Tally the raw data.

Class Tally Frequency Percent
High IIII - II
Average IIII - III
Low IIII

Step 3: Convert the tallied data into numerical frequencies.

Class Tally Frequency Percent
High IIII - II 7
Average IIII - III 8
Low IIII 5

Step 4: Determine the percentage. The percentage is computed using the formula:
𝒇
% = 𝒏 × 100%, where f= frequency of the class and n = total number of values.

Class Tally Frequency Percent Found by

High IIII - II 7 35 (7÷20) × 100
Average IIII - III 8 40 (8÷20) × 100
Low IIII 5 25 (5÷20) × 100
Total 20 100

For the sample, more applicants received an average performance rating.

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Determining Class Interval

Generally the number of classes for a frequency distribution table varies from 5 to 20,
depending primarily on the number of observations in the data set. It is preferably to have more classes
as the size of a data set increases. The decision about the number of classes depends on the method
used by the researcher.

1. Rule 1. To determine the number of classes is to use the smallest positive integer k such that 2k ≥ n,
where n is the total number of observations. Using Formula 2-1 we can obtain the ideal class interval.
Range HV−LV
Suggested Class Interval (i) = Number of Classes = (Formula 2-1)
k

where: HV = Highest value in a data set LV = Lowest value in a data set

k= number of classes i = suggested class interval

2. Rule 2. Another way to determine the class interval we can apply Formula 2-2.
Range
Suggested Class Interval = (Formula 2-2)
1+3.322 (1ogarithm of total frequencies)

3. Rule 3. Another guideline to determine the class interval is to have an ideal number of
classes, then apply Formula 2-3.
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Suggested Class Interval = (Formula 2-3)
Number of Classes

Grouped Frequency Distribution

Example 1: Suppose a researcher wished to do a study on the monthly salary (in P thousands) of
call center agents of selected call center companies. The research first would have to collect the data
by asking each call center agents about their monthly salary. The data collected in original form is
called raw data. In this case, the data are

Construct a frequency distribution using Rule 1 and determine the following:

a. Range e. Relative frequencies
b. Interval f. Percentages
c. Class limits g. Cumulative frequencies
d. Class boundaries h. Midpoints

Solution:

Step 1: Arrange the raw data in ascending or descending order. In this particular example we

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will arrange raw data in ascending order. This will make it easier for us to tally the data.

Step 2: Determine the classes.

• Find the highest and lowest value.
Highest Value (HV) = 33.70 and Lowest Value (LV) = 14.10

• Find the range.

Range Highest Value (HV) - Lowest Value (LV) = 33.70 - 14.10 = 19.60

• Determine the number of classes.

The objective is to use just enough classes. We can determine the number of classes
(k) using "2 to the k rule". This will enable us to select the smallest number (k) for the
number of classes such that 24k (2 raised to the power of k) is greater than the number of
observations (n). Using our example, there are 80 call center agents (or n - 80). If we apply
k = 6, which means we would use 6 classes, then 2k = 26 = 64, somewhat less than 80.
Thus, 6 is not enough classes. If we try k = 7, then 2k = 27 = 128, which is greater than 80.
Therefore, the recommended number of classes is 7.

• Determine the class interval (or width).

Generally the class interval (or width) should be equal for all classes. The classes
must cover all the values in the raw data (that is, from lowest to highest). Class interval is
generated using the formula:
Range HV−LV 19.60
Suggested Class Interval (i) = Number of Classes = = = 2.80 ≈ 3
k 7

▪ Note: Round the value of the interval up to the nearest whole number if there
is a remainder.
• Select a starting point for the lowest class limit.
The starting point can be the smallest data value or any convenient number less
than the smallest data value. In our case 14 is used.

• Set the individual class limit.

We need to add the interval (or width) to the lowest score taken as the starting point
to obtain the lower limit of the next class. Keep adding until we reach the 7 classes, as
reflected 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 29, and 32. To obtain the upper class limits, we need to subtract
one unit to the lower limit of the second class to obtain the upper limit of the first class.
That is, 17 - 1 = 16. Then add the interval (or width) to each upper limit to obtain all the
upper limits.

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Class Limits
14 - 16
17 - 19
20 - 22
23 - 25
26 - 28
29 - 31
32 - 34

• Set the class boundaries in each class. To obtain the class boundaries, we need to subtract
0.5 from each lower class limit and add 0.5 to each upper class limit.

Class Limits Class Boundaries

14 - 16 13.5 - 16.5
17 - 19 16.5 - 19.5
20 - 22 19.5 - 22.5
23 - 25 22.5 - 25.5
26 - 28 25.5 - 28.5
29 - 31 28.5 - 31.5
32 - 34 31.5 - 34.5

Step 3: Tally the raw data.

Class Limits Class Boundaries Tally
14 - 16 13.5 - 16.5 IIII
17 - 19 16.5 - 19.5 IIII - IIII
20 - 22 19.5 - 22.5 IIII - IIII - IIII - I
23 - 25 22.5 - 25.5 IIII - IIII - IIII - IIII - III
26 - 28 25.5 - 28.5 IIII - IIII - IIII - II
29 - 31 28.5 - 31.5 IIII - III
32 - 34 31.5 - 34.5 III

Step 4: Convert the tallied data into numerical frequencies.

Class Limits Class Boundaries Tally Frequency
14 - 16 13.5 - 16.5 IIII 4
17 - 19 16.5 - 19.5 IIII - IIII 9
20 - 22 19.5 - 22.5 IIII - IIII - IIII - I 16
23 - 25 22.5 - 25.5 IIII - IIII - IIII - IIII - III 23
26 - 28 25.5 - 28.5 IIII - IIII - IIII - II 17
29 - 31 28.5 - 31.5 IIII - III 8
32 - 34 31.5 - 34.5 III 3

Step 5: Determine the relative frequency. It can be found by dividing each frequency by the total
frequency.

Class Limits Frequency Relative Frequency Found by

14 - 16 4 0.05 4 ÷ 80
17 - 19 9 0.11 9 ÷ 80
20 - 22 16 0.20 16 ÷ 80
23 - 25 23 0.29 23 ÷ 80
26 - 28 17 0.21 17 ÷ 80
29 - 31 8 0.10 8 ÷ 80
32 - 34 3 0.04 3 ÷ 80

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Step 6: Determine the percentage. It can be found by multiplying 100% in each relative frequency.

Class Limits Frequency Percentage Found by

14 - 16 4 5 (4 ÷ 80) × 100
17 - 19 9 11 (9 ÷ 80) × 100
20 - 22 16 20 (16 ÷ 80) × 100
23 - 25 23 29 (23 ÷ 80) × 100
26 - 28 17 21 (17 ÷ 80) × 100
29 - 31 8 10 (8 ÷ 80) × 100
32 - 34 3 4 (3 ÷ 80) × 100
Total 80 100

Step 7: Determine the cumulative frequencies. The cumulative frequency can be found by adding the
frequency in each class to the total frequencies of the classes preceding that class.

Cumulative
Class Limits Frequency Found by
Frequency
14 - 16 4 4 4
17 - 19 9 13 4+9
20 - 22 16 29 4 + 9 + 16
23 - 25 23 52 4 + 9 + 16 + 23
26 - 28 17 69 4 + 9 + 16 + 23 + 17
29 - 31 8 77 4 + 9 + 16 + 23 + 17 + 8
32 - 34 3 80 4 + 9 + 16 + 23 + 17 + 8 + 3

Step 8: Determine the midpoints. The midpoint can be found by getting the average of the upper limit
and lower limit in each class.

Class Limits Frequency Midpoints Found by

14 - 16 4 15 (14 + 16) ÷ 2
17 - 19 9 18 (17 + 19) ÷ 2
20 - 22 16 21 (20 + 22) ÷ 2
23 - 25 23 24 (23 + 25) ÷ 2
26 - 28 17 27 (26 + 28) ÷ 2
29 - 31 8 30 (29 + 31) ÷ 2
32 - 34 3 33 (32 + 34) ÷ 2

Example 2:
SJS Travel Agency, a nationwide local travel agency, offers special rates on summer period. The
owner wants additional information on the ages of those people taking travel tours. A random sample of
50 customers taking travel tours last summer revealed these ages.

Construct a frequency distribution using Rule 1 and determine the following:

a. Range e. Relative frequencies
b. Interval f. Percentages
c. Class limits g. Cumulative frequencies
d. Class boundaries h. Midpoints

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Solution:

Step 1: Arrange the raw data in ascending order.

Step 2: Determine the classes.

• Find the highest and lowest value.
Highest Value (HV) = 77 and Lowest Value (LV) = 18

• Find the range.

Range Highest Value (HV) - Lowest Value (LV) = 77 - 18 = 59

• Determine the class interval (or width).

Class interval is generated using Formula 2-2:
Range
Suggested Class Interval = 1+3.322 (1ogarithm of total frequencies)

77−18
= 1+3.322 (1og 50)

59
= 1+3.322 (1,698970004)

59
= 6.643978354

= 8.88 ≈ 9

• Select a starting point for the lowest class limit. The lowest value in the data set is 18,
this will also serve as our starting point.

• Set the individual class limit. We will add 9 to each lower class limit until reaching the
number of classes (18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, and 72). To obtain the upper class limits, we need
to subtract one unit to the lower limit of the second class to obtain the upper limit of the
first class. That is, 27 - 1 = 26. Then add the interval (or width) to each upper limit to obtain
all the upper limits (26, 35, 44, 53, 62, 71, and 80).

Class Limits
18 - 26
27 - 35
36 - 44
45 - 53
54 - 62
63 - 71
72 - 80

• Set the class boundaries in each class. To obtain the class boundaries, we need to subtract
0.5 from each lower class limit and add 0.5 to each upper class.
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Class Limits Class Boundaries

18 - 26 17.5 - 26.5
27 - 35 26.5 - 35.5
36 - 44 35.5 - 44.5
45 - 53 44.5 - 53.5
54 - 62 53.5 - 62.5
63 - 71 62.5 - 71.5
72 - 80 71.5 - 80.5

Step 3: Tally the raw data.

Class Limits Class Boundaries Tally
18 - 26 17.5 - 26.5 III
27 - 35 26.5 - 35.5 IIII
36 - 44 35.5 - 44.5 IIII - IIII
45 - 53 44.5 - 53.5 IIII - IIII - IIII
54 - 62 53.5 - 62.5 IIII - IIII - I
63 - 71 62.5 - 71.5 IIII - I
72 - 80 71.5 - 80.5 I

Step 4: Convert the tallied data into numerical frequencies.

Class Limits Class Boundaries Tally Frequency
18 - 26 17.5 - 26.5 III 3
27 - 35 26.5 - 35.5 IIII 5
36 - 44 35.5 - 44.5 IIII - IIII 9
45 - 53 44.5 - 53.5 IIII - IIII - IIII 14
54 - 62 53.5 - 62.5 IIII - IIII - I 11
63 - 71 62.5 - 71.5 IIII - I 6
72 - 80 71.5 - 80.5 I 2

Step 5: Determine the relative frequency.

Class Limits Frequency Relative Frequency Found by

18 - 26 3 0.06 3 ÷ 50
27 - 35 5 0.10 5 ÷ 50
36 - 44 9 0.18 9 ÷ 50
45 - 53 14 0.28 14 ÷ 50
54 - 62 11 0.22 11 ÷ 50
63 - 71 6 0.12 6 ÷ 50
72 - 80 2 0.04 2 ÷ 50

Step 6: Determine the percentage.

Class Limits Frequency Percentage Found by

18 - 26 3 6 (3 ÷ 50) × 100
27 - 35 5 10 (5 ÷ 50) × 100
36 - 44 9 18 (9 ÷ 50) × 100
45 - 53 14 28 (14 ÷ 50) × 100
54 - 62 11 22 (11 ÷ 50) × 100
63 - 71 6 12 (6 ÷ 50) × 100
72 - 80 2 4 (2÷ 50) × 100
Total 50 100

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Step 7: Determine the cumulative frequencies.

Cumulative
Class Limits Frequency Found by
Frequency
18 - 26 3 3 3
27 - 35 5 8 3+5
36 - 44 9 17 3+5+9
45 - 53 14 31 3 + 5 + 9 +14
54 - 62 11 42 3 + 5 + 9 +14 +11
63 - 71 6 48 3 + 5 + 9 +14 +11 + 6
72 - 80 2 50 3 + 5 + 9 +14 +11 + 6 + 2

Step 8: Determine the midpoints.

Class Limits Frequency Midpoints Found by

18 - 26 3 22 (18 + 26) ÷ 2
27 - 35 5 31 (27 + 35) ÷ 2
36 - 44 9 40 (36 + 44) ÷ 2
45 - 53 14 49 (45 + 53 ) ÷ 2
54 - 62 11 58 (54 + 62) ÷ 2
63 - 71 6 67 (63 + 71) ÷ 2
72 - 80 2 76 (72 + 80) ÷ 2

D. Stem-and-Leaf Plot
A statistician named John Tukey introduced the stem-and-leaf plot. The objective of this
method is to some extent overcomes the loss of actual observations brought about by the histogram.
The advantage of the stem-and-leaf plot over the histogram is that we can see the actual
observations.

The stem is the leading digit or digits and the leaf is the trailing digit. The stem is placed at the
first column and the leaf at the second column.

Example 1:

SJS Travel Agency, a nationwide local travel agency, offers special rates on summer
period. The owner wants additional information on the ages of people taking travel tours. A
random sample of 50 customers taking travel tours last summer revealed these ages.

Construct a stem-and-leaf plot.

Solution:

The stems (leading digits) for the raw data are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. The leaves for
each stem (trailing digit) are recorded at the same row and are rank-ordered to form a
stem-and-leaf plot.

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Stem Leaf
1 8, 9
2 4, 7, 8, 9
3 1, 4, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9
Tens digit 4 0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9 Units digit
(leading digits) 5 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9 (trailing digits)
6 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8
7 0, 4, 7

E. Graphing Frequency Distribution

When the data set contains large number of values, making conclusions from an ordered
array or stem-and-leaf plot is often difficult. We will need graphs or charts in such situations. There
are a number of graphs or charts to visually show numerical data. These include histogram,
frequency polygon, and cumulative frequency (ogive).

In this section, we discussed several graphical methods that are used for interval data. The
most important of these graphical methods is the histogram. Histogram is a powerful graphical
technique used to summarize interval data, but it also helps explain an important aspect of
probability.

Histogram

A histogram is a graph in which the classes are marked on the horizontal axis (x-axis) and
the class frequencies on the vertical axis (y-axis). The height of the bars represents the class
frequencies, and the bars are drawn adjacent to each other. Nevertheless, the histogram focuses on
the frequency of each class and sacrifices whatever information was contained in the actual
observations.

Frequency Polygon

A frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data using points which are connected by
lines. The frequencies are represented by the heights of the points at the midpoints of the classes.
The vertical axis represents the frequency of the distribution while the horizontal axis represents
the midpoints of the frequency distribution.

Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

A cumulative frequency polygon or ogive (read as oh'-jive) is a graph that displays the
cumulative frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution. The vertical axis represents the
cumulative frequency of the distribution while the horizontal axis represents the upper class
boundaries (real upper limits) of the frequency distribution.

Example: As shown below is the frequency distribution in the Example 1 in Section 2.3.

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Class
Class Limits Midpoints Frequency cf
Boundaries
14 - 16 13.5 - 16.5 15 4 4
17 - 19 16.5 - 19.5 18 9 13
20 - 22 19.5 - 22.5 21 16 29
23 - 25 22.5 - 25.5 24 23 52
26 - 28 25.5 - 28.5 27 17 69
29 - 31 28.5 - 31.5 30 8 77
32 - 34 31.5 - 34.5 33 3 80

Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and cumulative frequency polygon. What conclusions
can you reached based on the information presented in the histogram.

Solution:

a. Constructing a Histogram

Step 1: Find the midpoints of each class.

Step 2: Draw and label the x-axis and y-axis.
Step 3: Represent the frequency on the y-axis and the midpoints on the x-axis.
Step 4: Use the frequency to represent the height and draw the vertical bars.

The class frequencies are scaled along the vertical axis and the class midpoints
along the horizontal axis. From Figure 2.1 we note that there are 4 employees in the
Php 15,000 class midpoints or Php l4,000-Php 16,000. Therefore, the height of the column
for class Php 14,000-Php 16,000 is 4. Applying the same thing to other classes we shall
obtain the graph below.

As the histogram shows, the class with the greatest number of data values (23) is
Php 23,000- Php 25,000, followed by 17 for Php 26,000- Php28,000. The graph also has
one peak with the data clustering around it.

b. Constructing a Frequency Polygon

Step 1: Find the midpoints of each class.

Step 2: Draw and label the x-axis and y-axis.
Step 3: Represent the frequency on the y-axis and the midpoints on the x-axis.
Step 4: Connect adjacent points with line segments. Draw a line back to the x-
axis at the beginning and end of the graph.

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C. Constructing a Cumulative Frequency Polygon (ogive)

Step 1: Find the cumulative distribution of the data set.
Class
Class Limits Frequency cf
Boundaries
14 - 16 13.5 - 16.5 4 4
17 - 19 16.5 - 19.5 9 13
20 - 22 19.5 - 22.5 16 29
23 - 25 22.5 - 25.5 23 52
26 - 28 25.5 - 28.5 17 69
29 - 31 28.5 - 31.5 8 77
32 - 34 31.5 - 34.5 3 80

Step 2: Draw and label the x-axis and y-axis.

Step 3: Represent the frequency on the y-axis and the upper class boundaries on the x-
axis.

Step 4: Connect adjacent points with line segments.

F. Other Types of Graphs and Charts

As discussed in the previous section, the only allowable calculations on nominal data is to count
the frequency of each value of the variable. We can graphically display the counts in three ways: pareto
charts, bar charts, and pie charts. This section also includes on how to graphically dişplay timę series
graph, pictograph and scatter plot.

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A. Pareto Chart

A pareto chart is a graph used to represent a frequency distribution for a categorical data (or
nominal-level) and frequencies are displayed by the heights of vertical bars, which are
arranged in order from highest to lowest.

B. Bar Chart (Bar Graph)

A bar chart is similar to bar histogram. The bases of the rectangles are arbitrary intervals whose
centers are the codes. The height of each rectangle represents the frequency of that category. It is also
applicable for categorical data (or nominal-level).

C. Pie Chart (Circle Graph)

A pie chart is a circle divided into portions that represent the relative frequencies (or percentages)
of the data belonging to different categories. The data in a pie chart should be categorical or nominal-
level.

D. Time Series Graph

A time series graph represents data that occur over specific period of time under observation. In
addition, it shows for a trend or pattern on the increase or decrease over the period of time.

E. Pictograph (Pictogram)

A pictograph immediately suggests the nature of the data being shown. It is a of the attention-
getting quality and the accuracy of the bar chart. Appropriate pictures arranged in a row (sometimes in a
column) present the quantities for comparison.

F. Scatter Plot

A scatter plot is used to examine possible relationships between two numerical variables. The two
variables are plot in x-axis and y-axis.
Now we will illustrate how to construct the pareto chart, bar chart, pie chart, time series
graph, pictograph, and scatter plot using the succeeding examples.

Example 1: Using the information in the table about the favorite snacks of 870 youths, construct a pareto
chart, bar chart, and pie chart.

Products Sales
Junk foods 135
Candy 250
Ice Cream 185
Chocolate 210
Others 90

a. Constructing a Pareto Chart

Step l: Arrange the data from highest to lowest according to frequency.

Products Sales
Candy 250
Chocolate 210
Ice Cream 185
Junk foods 135
Others 90

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Step 2: Draw and label the x-axis (Products) and y-axis (Sales).

Step 3: Construct the chart by arranging the frequency from highest to lowest and from
left to right. Make a bar with the same width and draw the height corresponding to the
frequencies. Figure 2.4 shows the Pareto Chart on the favorite snacks of the youth.

b. Constructing a Bar Chart

Step 1: Draw and label the x-axis (Products) and y-axis (Sales).

Step 2:Make a bar with the same width and draw the height corresponding to the
frequencies. Figure 2.5 shows the Bar Chart on the favorite snacks of the youth.

c. Constructing a Pie Chart

Step 1: Since there are 360° in a circle, the frequency of each class must be converted
into a proportional part of the circle. This conversion is done by applying the
formula

𝒇
Degrees = (𝒏) (𝟑𝟔𝟎°)

where f = frequency of each class, and

n = sum of frequencies.

Hence, the following conversions are obtained. The degrees should total to 360°.

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𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟓
Candy = (𝟖𝟕𝟎) (𝟑𝟔𝟎°) = 103° Junk Foods = (𝟖𝟕𝟎) (𝟑𝟔𝟎°) = 56°

𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝟗𝟎
Chocolate = (𝟖𝟕𝟎) (𝟑𝟔𝟎°) = 87° Others (𝟖𝟕𝟎) (𝟑𝟔𝟎°) = 37°

𝟏𝟖𝟓
Ice Cream = (𝟖𝟕𝟎) (𝟑𝟔𝟎°) = 77°

Step 2: Each frequency must also be converted to a percentage and has a total of 100%. This
percentage can be done using by applying the formula

𝒇
Percentage = (𝒏) (100%)

where f frequency of each class, and n = sum of frequencies.

𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟓
Candy = (𝟖𝟕𝟎) (𝟏𝟎𝟎%) = 29% Junk Foods = (𝟖𝟕𝟎) (𝟏𝟎𝟎%) = 16°

𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝟗𝟎
Chocolate = (𝟖𝟕𝟎) (𝟏𝟎𝟎%) = 24% Others (𝟖𝟕𝟎) (𝟏𝟎𝟎%) = 10%

𝟏𝟖𝟓
Ice Cream = (𝟖𝟕𝟎) (𝟏𝟎𝟎%) = 21%

Step 3: Using a protractor, graph each section and write its name and appropriate percentage,
shown in Figure 2.6.

Example 2: Using the information in the table below about the dollar to peso exchange rate from
January to December of 2010, construct a time series graph.
Month January February March April May June
Peso/US Dollar
41 42 43 46 44 45
Exchange Rate
Month July August September October November December
Peso/US Dollar
43 42 45 44 45 43
Exchange Rate

Solution:

Step 1: Draw and label the x-axis and y-axis.

Step 2: Label the x-axis for months and y-axis for Peso per US Dollar

Step 3: Plot each point according to the table.

Step 4: Draw a line segments connecting adjacent points.

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Example 3: The VSAS Realty Inc. is a real estate who develops household in Rizal province. The
information in the table show the number of house construction from 2006 to 2010. Construct a
pictograph.
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
No. of Houses 400 250 600 550 700
Solution:

Step 1: Draw and label the x-axis and y-axis.

Step 2: Label the x-axis for years and y-axis for Number of Houses.

Step 3: Draw a house to represent the number of houses.

Example 4: The owner of a chain of halo-halo stores would like to study the effect of atmospheric
temperature on sales during the summer season. A random sample of 12 days is selected with the
results given as follows:

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
No. of
79 76 78 84 90 83 93 94 97 85 88 82
Houses
Total
147 143 147 168 206 155 192 211 209 187 200 150
Sales

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Put the data on a scatter diagram.

Solution:
Step 1: Draw and label the x-axis and y-axis.

Step 2: Label the x-axis for Temperature (°F) and y-axis for Sales.

Step 3: Plot the points of each ordered pairs in the Cartesian coordinate system.

G. Guidelines for Developing Good Graphs/charts

Good graphical displays tell what the data are conveying. Sadly many graphs or charts
shown in newspapers and magazines are misleading, incorrect, or complicated that must not be
used. In order to correctly develop a good graphs/charts there are some guidelines that needs to
bear in mind such as

1. The graph/chart should include a title.

2. The scales for all axes should be included.
3. The scale on the y-axis should start at zero.
4 The graph/chart should not disfigure the data.
5. The x-axis and y-axis should be properly labeled.
6. The graph/chart should not contain unnecessary decorations.
7. The simplest possible graph/chart should be used for any data set.

H. How to make a Frequency Distribution Table using SPSS?

➢ A frequency distribution table provides a snapshot view of the characteristics of a data set. It allows
you to see how scores are distributed across the whole set of scores – whether, for example, they
are spread evenly or skew towards a particular end of the distribution.

Quick Steps in making a Frequency Distribution Table

1. Click on Analyze → Descriptive Statistics → Frequencies

2. Move the variable of interest into the right-hand column.
3. Click on the Chart button, select Histograms, and then press the Continue
button.
4. Click OK to generate a frequency distribution table.

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Example:
The Data
Encode the data in SPSS. Given dataset is an example which we will be using.

The Frequency Distribution Table

To make a frequency distribution table, click on Analyze → Descriptive Statistics → Frequencies.

This will bring up the Frequencies dialog box.

➢ You need to get the variable for which you wish to generate the frequencies into the Variable(s)
box on the right. You can do this by dragging and dropping, or by selecting the variable on the
left, and then clicking the arrow in the middle.

➢ Once you’ve set this up, hit the Charts button to bring up the Charts dialog box.

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➢ Now select Histograms as the chart type (and additionally it’s a good idea to tick the show
normal curve option).

➢ Click Continue when you’re done, which will bring you back to the Frequencies dialog box.
This should look something like this.

➢ Now you’re ready to generate the frequency distribution table and histogram. Just hit the
OK button.

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The Result
The output produced by SPSS is fairly easy to understand.

Frequency Distribution Table

• The scores (in our case, the number of correct answers) are in the left column. The number of
occurrences of a given score is specified in the Frequency column.
• You’ve also got columns specifying percent and cumulative percent, where percent is the number
of occurrences of a given score divided by the total number of scores multiplied by 100, and
cumulative percent is the total you get when you add the percent values to each other as you
descend down the rows.
• The size of the sample is effectively the total number of valid scores, which you can see at the top
of the table and at the bottom of the Frequency column.

Histogram

➢ A histogram provides a graphical representation of a frequency distribution.

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• The y-axis (on the left) represents a frequency count, and the x-axis (across the bottom), the value
of the variable (in this case the number of correct answers). You’ll notice that SPSS also provides
values for mean (9.7) and standard deviation (2.654). It appears that our distribution is somewhat
skewed to the left.
• If you want to save your histogram, you can right-click on it within the output viewer, and choose
to copy it to an image file (which you can then use within other programs).

I. Creating Graphs in SPSS

This will show you how to explore your data, by producing graphs in SPSS.

Sample Data: based on the evaluation of the Schools Linking Network.

When deciding what type of graph to produce, you first need to think about:

(1) the type of data you have collected: interval, ordinal or nominal data.
(2) what information are you trying to convey: means, medians, modes or frequency
data.

Let’s start by exploring our nominal (or categorical) variables. SPSS codes different
categories by assigning each one a number (which is displayed in the datasheet above).

To see what the different coding options are in any dataset, you can CLICK on the
View menu and select the Value Labels option or use the Value Labels shortcut button on
the task bar (outlined in red below).

Doing this will display the variable labels for each of your conditions or groups.

So how might you best summarise this kind of data? What information might you
want to show?

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Let’s explore this using one of the variables above: Ethnicity. One thing you might
want to consider when exploring the effectiveness of the Schools Linking Network is how
diverse the students who took part were. In other words, you would want a way to represent
the proportion of participants who fell into each of the different ethnic groups defined here.
A good way to represent proportions is using a pie chart.

Pie Charts
Just to confuse you, SPSS has multiple ways of producing charts
and graphs… but this tutorial is going to focus on the method you
are likely to use the more: using the chart builder.

To produce a pie chart, you first need to CLICK on the Graphs menu and select the
Chart Builder option.

The first thing you will see is a pop-up box asking you to define your level of measurement
for each variable (i.e. tell SPSS whether it is interval, ordinal or nominal). This has already
been done for this example (to see how, revisit the Adding Variables tutorial).

To stop this pop-up from displaying again, tick the ‘Don’t show this dialog again’ box.

CLICK on OK to continue.

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This will open up the chart builder for you.

The Variables
list displays the The Chart
different Preview box is
variables you the canvas,
have in your where you can
dataset. drag and drop
information to
build and
The Gallery preview your
displays each graph or chart.
type of graph
you can create
and its variants.

To create a pie chart, CLICK on Pie/Polar from the Gallery options, and SELECT the
image of the pie chart and drag and drop it to the Chart Preview window.

You may have noticed two things happen when you do this:

1. The first is that the Chart preview window now displays

a preview of a standard pie chart, which provides drag-
and-drop boxes for you to define which information
you want it to display.

2. The second is the opening of the Element Properties

dialogue box, which allows you to define what
numerical aspects of your data will be displayed.

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So, you now need to define the information you want the pie chart to display.

In this case, you want the Slices of the

pie to represent the ethnicity of your
participants.

So, SELECT the Ethnicity variable from the

Variables List and drag and drop it to box
marked ‘Slice by?’ in the Chart Preview
window.

You may have noticed that in doing this,

your Angle Variable box has
automatically filled itself to ‘Count’. This
means the angles of the slices will be
determined by how many participants are
in each group.

If we wanted to change this, we could do

so using the Element Properties box.

However, as this is what we want to

display, simply click on the OK button in
the Chart Builder to produce your chart.

In the SPSS Output viewer, you should now

find you have produced the following pie
chart:

From this we can easily see that the vast

majority of pupils taking part in the Linking
Schools Network were white, making up
almost three-quarters of the sample.

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Histograms
Now you know how to produce a simple pie chart, let’s try to produce a different type of
graph. This time, let’s investigate how much the participants in the Linking Schools Project
enjoyed meeting people through the program.

The variable Enjoyment recorded how much pupils enjoyed this on a scale of 1-5 (where 1 =
did not enjoy at all and 5 = really enjoyed). As this is a single scale with 5 ordered categories to
choose from, it’s an ordinal variable. In this case, you might be interested in the frequency with
which participants chose each of these five response options. A good way to investigate a frequency
distribution like this would be with a histogram.

Again, open up the Chart Builder by selecting this option

through the Graphs menu.

The Chart Builder will remember your settings from the last graph you produced (unless you
have closed SPSS in between). Don’t worry about that – you just need to replace the options.

First, tell SPSS what graph you want by selecting Histogram from the Gallery window.

This time, there are a number of graph options that you can
choose from. You are only ever likely to need two of these
options:

Simple Histogram: when you want to look at the frequency

distribution for a single variable (as we do now).

Stacked Histogram: where you want to compare the

frequency distribution for a single variable across different
groups.

As we only have one variable that we are interested in here, CLICK on Histogram from the
Gallery options, and SELECT the image of the simple histogram and drag and drop it to
the Chart Preview window.

The Chart Preview window now displays a

histogram, but it still contains the Ethnicity variable.
To replace this, simply click on the box containing
the variable and drag it back to the Variables list.

This gives you a blank histogram template. You now

need to define what information will be displayed on
the X-axis and the Y-axis of the graph.

In this case, you want each bar of the histogram to

represent a score on the Enjoyment scale.

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So, SELECT the Enjoyment variable from the Variables List and drag and drop it to box
marked X-Axis’ in the Chart Preview window.

As with the pie chart, doing this automatically

fills the other box (Y-Axis,) with ‘Count’. This means
the height of each of the bars will be determined by
how many participants are in each group. While this
is absolutely fine for a histogram, for this example
let’s change the display to something else.

We can change what the Y-Axis represents using the

Element Properties dialog box.

In this case, we want to change the display from Count to

Percentage (which will display the percentage of participants who
selected each of the response options).

To do this, CLICK on the drop-down Statistic menu in the

Statistics box, and SELECT ‘Percentage ()’.

Once this is selected and displays in the Statistic box,

CLICK on Apply to change the histogram display.

When the changes have been applied in the Chart

Preview display, CLICK on OK in the Chart Builder
window to produce your histogram.

Your histogram should now appear in the SPSSOutput

window:

From the histogram you can see that the

majority of pupils enjoyed meeting new
people through the Linking Schools
Network.

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Bar Charts
So far, we have looked at producing charts that display the frequency distributions of
nominal or ordinal variables. But what about situations where we want to compare mean scores on
one variable across different conditions or groups. For example:

• You might want to compare the mean Respect scores that boys and girls had before taking
part in the Linking Schools Network. In this case, the groups being compared are
independent from one another, as participants can only fall into one of the two grouping
categories (they are either male or female).

• Alternatively, you might want to investigate the effectiveness of the Linking Schools
Network by comparing the mean Respect scores participants had both before and after
taking part in the program. In this case, the groups being compared are related, as the same
participants would give data at both of the two time points.

When comparing group means, the best type of graph to use is a bar chart.

But whether the comparison you want to make is Independent (between participants)
or Related (within-participants) affects the way you would produce the bar chart.

Regardless of the example you choose, you would start off in the same way. First, let’s
imagine we want to compare mean Respect1 scores across gender.

In this case you would open up the Chart Builder (as

above) and select Bar from the Gallery window.

Again, several options are displayed, but you are only

ever likely to use two:

Simple Bar: when you are investigating mean scores on one variable (e.g. respect scores) across
the different groups or conditions of another single variable (e.g. across gender, or across time
points).

Clustered Bar: when you are investigating differences in mean scores on one variable across
the different groups or conditions of multiple other variables (e.g. across gender and ethnicity
simultaneously).

In both of our examples here, we would use a Simple Bar. As such, SELECT the image of the
simple bar and drag and drop it to the Chart Preview window.

Now, empty the chart preview of any existing variables (as before).

Bar Charts Comparing Independent Group Means

Let’s take our first example, displaying mean respect scores for boys and girls in the
program. In this example, we would want two bars; one to each represent gender. Their
height would represent their Respect scores.

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As such, SELECT the first Respect variable

from the Variables List and drag and drop it to
the box marked Y-Axis in the Chart Preview
window.

Next, SELECT the Gender variable and

drag and drop it to the box marked
X-Axis.

You may have noticed that in doing this the Statistics

box has detected the variable on the Y-Axis and has
automatically recommended displaying the Mean
value here. As this is what we want to display there is
no need to change this.

But when producing a bar chart, it is always good to

include error bars, as this gives an idea of the
dispersion in your data and the representativeness of
your sample.

To do this, SELECT the Display error bars box

and choose an option from the ‘Error Bars
Represent’ box. In this case, choose the ‘Standard
error’ option with a Multiple of 2. This measure is
important, as you will learn when it comes to
inferential statistics later on.

CLICK on Apply to save the changes.

When the changes have been applied in the Chart

Preview display, CLICK on OK in the Chart Builder
window to produce the following bar chart in the Output
window:

As you can see from the graph, Respect score appear very
similar for the two genders (something you can tell from
the overlap of the error bars).

Bar Charts Comparing Related Group Means

As our final example, let’s go back to our suggested example investigating the effectiveness
of the Linking Schools Network. In this case, participants’ mean Respect scores need to be compared
both before and after taking part in the program. The means are related, because the same participants
give data at each time point.

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Following the steps, you have gone through before, open up the Chart Builder and
empty the Chart Preview window of any existing variables.

In this example, we want the bars to represent each time point (before and after
taking part in the program) and their height to show their Respect scores.

To do this, you need to hold down

the Ctrl key on your keyboard and
SELECT both Respect variables
simultaneously.

Once they are both highlighted,

drag and drop them to the box
marked Y-Axis in the Preview
window.

This brings up the following dialog box:

Essentially this box tells us that it is creating two
new variables:

Summary: which is the variable we are measuring

directly (i.e. Respect scores)

Index: which represents the grouping categories

(i.e. Before and After taking part in the program)

Just CLICK on OK to accept this.

As SPSS remembers all of our previous

settings (i.e. displaying Means and +/- 2SE
error bars) the Chart Preview window should
be correct.

CLICK on OK in the Chart Builder

window to produce the bar chart.

The SPSS Output window should now display the following bar chart:

In this case it appears that Respect

scores after the intervention were higher than
beforehand.

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You have now produced several different types of graphs. Why don’t you take the time to
explore the other different types of charts you can produce by downloadingthe data file used
in this tutorial and playing with the different graph options.

For example, see if you can produce:

• a pie chart for the different genders

• a box plot for one of the variables
• a bar chart looking at respect scores before and after the intervention, clustered
by gender

The more you play with SPSS, the more familiar with the program you will become.

ASSESSMENT

Test I. Construct a frequency distribution table for the following using the conventional method
and SPSS. (40 points each)

1. Samples of forty-two (42) college students are considered for study and were categorized
according to year level. The data set is
Freshman Freshman Freshman Sophomore Junior Freshman Senior
Sophomore Senior Senior Freshman Senior Sophomore Sophomore
Junior Sophomore Freshman Freshman Sophomore Sophomore Freshman
Senior Sophomore Sophomore Freshman Freshman Junior Junior
Sophomore Junior Sophomore Junior Junior Junior Freshman
Freshman Senior Junior Freshman Freshman Freshman Sophomore

Construct a frequency distribution for the data.

Solution:
Relative
Class Tally Frequency Percentage
Frequency

Total

2. A sales representative for a publishing company recorded the following numbers of client
contacts for the 36 days that he was on the road in the month of May. Use the given data to
construct a grouped frequency distribution. Determine the class boundaries, relative frequencies,
cumulative frequency, and midpoints.

15 17 19 20 22 23 23 24 26 28 29 31
16 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 30 32
16 19 20 21 23 23 24 26 27 29 30 32

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Solution:
Class Relative Cumulative
Class Tally Frequency Midpoints
Boundaries Frequency Frequency

Total --- ---

Test II. Construct a stem-and-leaf plot for the following. (10 points)

The following data represents the bounced check fee in pesos (in hundreds) for a sample of
50 banks for direct deposit customers who maintain a P5,000 balance.

12 36 22 38 25 51 30 52 25 49
13 33 23 13 39 25 29 32 34 54
15 31 25 52 40 24 48 55 22 44
16 31 26 25 17 42 36 34 23 11
23 27 18 13 17 16 19 41 46 44

Solution:

Stem Leaf

Test III. Construct the graphs. You may use the Microsoft Excel or SPSS. (100 points)

1. Complete the table and construct a histogram, frequency polygon and cumulative frequency
polygon.

Solution:
Class Limits f X (Midpoints) cf
94 - 97 3
98 - 101 8
102 - 105 12
106 - 109 10
110 - 113 6
114 - 117 1

a. Histogram

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b. Frequency Polygon

c. Cumulative Frequency Polygon

2. Department of Labor and Employment statistical data for the recent year shows the average monthly
earnings of Filipino workers with respect to educational level. Draw a pareto chart, pie chart, and bar
chart that shows this information.

Educational Level Average Monthly Earnings

Elementary graduate (EG) ₱6, 000.00
Less than 4 years of High
₱9, 000.00
School (HSL)
High School Graduate ₱10, 300.00
College level (CL) ₱11, 500.00
College Graduate (CG) ₱15, 200.00

a. Pareto Chart

b. Pie Chart

c. Bar Chart

3. In Valenzuela City there were more workers strikes in 2009 than there were in other cities in
Metro Manila combined. Because of the release of city ordinance that prohibits the company
to give salary increase to workers. Draw the time series graph of the following data:

Year 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

No. of Strikes 12 8 15 18 11 20 22

4. The Department of Transportations and Communications (DOTC) gathered information about the
communications agencies that provides mobile phone services among Filipino. The information in the table
shows the communications agencies and the number subscribers. Construct a pictograph.

Communications Agency No. of Subscribers

Smart Communications 5,000,000
Globe Communications 4,000,000
Sun Cellular 2,500,000
Talk and Text 1,000,000
Others 500,000

5. The following is a series of real annual sales (in millions of pesos) over an 8-year period of an
appliance center. Construct a scatter plot.

Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Sales 10.2 11.4 9.5 14.3 10.8 13.0 11.6 12.7

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ADDITIONAL READINGS

Sirug, W. S. (2011). Basic Probability and Statistics. Intramuros, Manila: Mindshapers Co., Inc.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] (for grouped data)
[Link] (for ungrouped data)

REFERENCES

[Link]
[Link]

Montero-Galliguez, T., Gaquing, N. Jr., Quimbo, L., Lopez-Conde, R., Pineda, C., Regidor-
Latayada, M., and Nepa, M. (2016). Fundamentals of Statistical Analysis. QC: C&E Publishing,
Inc.

Mendenhall, W., Beaver, R. and Beaver B. (2014). Introduction to Probability and Statistics. 14th
Edition. Canada: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd. Philippines

Sirug, W. S. (2011). Basic Probability and Statistics. Intramuros, Manila: Mindshapers Co., Inc.

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